Alice Stebbins Wells (1873-1957) was among the first women in the United States to work in law enforcement.

Alice Wells spent her early career working as a pastor. During that time she saw that communities would be safer places if women, too, were on the local police forces. She urged passage of a law in Los Angeles that would permit women to be officers. Finally, in 1910, she was hired as a policewoman and given a regular beat, which was almost unheard of for a woman.

As Wells’s police career progressed, she founded the International Policewomen’s Association. This led to her traveling all over the country to promote the concept of hiring more women for law enforcement.

Early Life

Alice Stebbins Wells was born in Manhattan, Kansas. She was the daughter of well-educated parents, both of whom attended Oberlin College. After her birth, the family moved to Hiawatha, Kansas (about 70 miles north of Topeka), where her father started a local newspaper.

Alice attended high school in Atchison, which would have been about about 40 miles away from their home in Hiawatha. The family must have moved, or she stayed with someone in Atchison. After she graduated from high school, she studied at Oberlin College.

By 1900 she was a pastor’s assistant to Dr. Newell Dwight Hillis at Plymouth Church in Brooklyn. She was intrigued by religion and wanted to learn more about the philosophy behind it. She enrolled at the Hartford (Connecticut) Theological Seminary where she studied Old Testament history for two years. During this time, she filled in for vacationing pastors at churches in and around Maine, becoming the first woman to hold church services in that state.

On a trip to Perry, Oklahoma, she was offered and accepted a full-time position as a pastor of one of the local churches. During that time, she met and married Frank Wells, a pioneer who made his way to Oklahoma after leaving Wisconsin. The couple had three children.

At some point, the Wells family moved to Los Angeles.

Wells Believed Women Belonged in Law Enforcement

While working as a pastor, she developed the belief that there were situations where women could be more effective at policing than male officers were. This was what led to her campaign for women to be hired by police forces. If women police officers went into dance halls, skating rinks, and “picture houses,” children and women in trouble might find it easier to ask for help.

Wells began talking to anyone she could about her new cause. Slowly she gained support from community members. By the time her legislative proposal reached the Los Angeles City Council, she had popular opinion on her side. The City Council had little choice but to enact the law, which went into effect in 1910.

On August 13, 1910, Alice Stebbins Wells was hired as the first policewoman in L.A. Some sources identify her as the first in the nation, but as more and more local papers are digitized and used for research, historians see that she was among the first, but others preceded her. (See the end of the article for a few other names.)

Alice S. Wells: On the Beat in L.A.

Once hired, Alice Stebbins Wells was not issued a gun or a baton, however, she was issued a badge to show her authority. She also was provided with a telephone rule book, a first aid chart, and a telephone call box key so that she could report crimes and call for reinforcements.

Because it was so unusual for a woman to be on the police force, the badge did not always gain her the respect it should have. One of the perks of the position was that police could ride on trolley cars at no charge. One conductor ejected her from his trolley, accusing her of using her husband’s badge.

When she brought this problem back to headquarters, it was remedied. She was given a new badge: “Policewoman Badge No. 1.”

Initially, the police department did not intend for her to be in uniform. Early photographs show her in a lace blouse with a jacket. But Alice Stebbins Wells wanted recognition, so she took the matters into her own hands. She sewed a khaki-colored jacket and long skirt that became her uniform and the model for future uniforms for women of the day. (A copy of her uniform is on display at the Los Angeles Police Museum.)

News Coverage of Wells

News reporters were eager to write about the new female member of the Los Angeles police department. However, the reporters got off to a bumpy start. They didn’t know what to call her. Early references in the press describe her as the “first woman policeman,” “Officeress” or “Officerette Wells” Clearly, these were not titles Wells favored. Eventually women on the force became known as policewomen.

Alice Stebbins Wells wanted acceptance. In an interview with the Los Angeles Times, she said: “This is serious work and I do hope the newspapers will not try to make fun of it.”

The Los Angeles Herald reported: “Her salary is not as large as a policeman for she will receive but $75 a month, while a policeman receives $102. But she will have to conform to the regulations of the department just like any other member of the force.”

Starting to Patrol

After learning the patrol process under Juvenile Officer Leo W. Marden, Wells developed her own systematic method for visiting penny arcades, skating rinks, “picture theaters,” and any place where women and children might be in trouble.  She also became part of the “purity squad.” Sometimes she would report back to headquarters with information on theatrical shows or billboards that were not wholesome.

L.A. soon added a law that women in custody needed to be questioned by a woman investigator. After this, Wells was often called in to conduct these investigations.

Wells Saw Need for Special Services for Women

As Wells worked, she saw that women needed special services in order to feel comfortable in approaching the police. Wells helped found a bureau for women who needed help. She also founded a missing person’s bureau for women and children.

A third need was covered by the “Minnie Barton Home.” Minnie Barton was the first female probation officer in Los Angeles. When her family moved to Los Angeles, she was shocked by the lack of services for indigent women. She began working with the Los Angeles Police Courts as a volunteer in 1906 and established the Big Sister League in 1917. (Her initial connection with the police department predated Alice Wells.) The Big Sister League undertook many projects, but one of them was to create a safe place for women just released from jail.

Minnie Barton eventually received a salary (1916). She remained fully committed to her work as a probation officer throughout her lifetime. Over time, the house was used as a halfway house where some young offenders lived instead of being sent to jail.  Today this home is part of the Children’s Institute of Los Angeles.

Serious Work

Alice Wells also represented the police department by speaking at schools and women’s organizations.  In 1913, Los Angeles experienced a rash of robberies. Some were done by a group called the boy automobile bandits.  Women’s groups began inviting Wells to speak to them about crime and safety.

On August 14, 1913, Wells addressed a group of Los Angeles clubwomen to give them tips: “If she has the pluck, when she meets an annoyer or a hold-up man, scream first. Then use the first weapon at hand. Don’t forget the trusty hat pin. That or a few well-chosen jiu-jitsu tricks will help women when sneak thieves appear or burglars invade the home.

“Remember that a burglar is under greater nervous strain that you are.”

She concluded by reminding audiences that “The weapon nature gave a woman was a scream. But she notes, In more rural communities where someone might not hear you, “It would not be bad to know a few bone-breaking tricks.”

Wells also brought groups information about female hygiene which included sex education. This was a new but badly needed topic for that day.

Requests from Elsewhere

Because Alice Stebbins Wells advocated publicly for the need for women on police forces, her office received many inquiries.  By 1914, the LAPD permitted Wells to undertake a speaking tour promoting women in law enforcement.  She traveled widely conveying her message.

Reaction from the citizens and the press in the locations she visited was very positive. Toronto’s City Controller J.A. McCarthy wrote: “Not in many years of social work and interest in social problems have I heard an address so comprehensive, so intelligent and so full of 1913 common sense as that to which we listened last night…

“There is in this day no lack of speakers who criticize, but there is a dearth of speakers who are able to suggest as you did, the preventive and educational measures which are practical.” (Jan 14, 1913)

In Albany in 1914, she addressed the New York Assembly, urging passage of a bill for policewomen. And just as women today find that reporters can’t resist commenting on their clothing or their looks, Wells faced the same thing. A reporter for The Albany Times wrote: “She wore a khaki uniform and a large shield. Her brown hat, with an attractive plume, was distinctly feminine.”

Wells Tireless On Behalf of Her Cause

In May of 1915, she scheduled a conference to organize an international association of policewomen, to work with the National Conference of Charities and Corrections. Policewomen from 14 states came that first year and elected Alice Wells president, a position she held for five years.

At the second conference, 22 states were represented. The organization took an official stand on what the women should be called: “Policewoman” was to be used for regularly appointed police officers with the power of arrest.

Urged Other Changes

As she advocated for more policewomen, she realized that women would be better served by specific training since they were not given all the equipment that their male counterparts had. Here, Wells approached the University of California Southern Division (now UCLA) and urged them to offer a course to train women in law enforcement. That class became a reality in the summer of 1918. It was run by the School’s Criminology Department.

Wells was active in many other causes. She founded the Pan-Pacific Association for Mutual Understanding in 1924 and this group met regularly. She was also chairman and first present of the Women’s Peace Officers Association. (1928)

She stayed with the Los Angeles Police Department until retirement in 1940. In 1934, she requested what became her final position: to establish and curate a police museum. The Los Angeles Police Museum still exists today in Highland Park section of Los Angeles.

Wells died in 1957. Her funeral was well attended by all the senior officers in the police department. Her casket was accompanied by a 10-woman honor guard—something that would have made Alice Wells proud.

Alice Stebbins Wells deserves to long be remembered for introducing the concept of women in police work.

***

Other Women in Law Enforcement

The first women employed in any form of law enforcement jobs were hired as matrons in the jails. As early as the 1840s, they were used to help with women and children who were arrested or brought into the police station for protection. The matrons played a vital role in the system, but they did not patrol, nor could they arrest anyone.

Besides Alice Wells, a few other women worked as police officers long before women were commonly hired:

Marie Owens was hired by the Chicago Police Department in 1891. She had the power to arrest, but her duties were limited to child labor law violations.

Lola Baldwin joined the Portland (Oregon) Police Department in 1908. Prior to that, she headed a team of social workers who helped with moral issues and challenges that arose as a result of the Lewis and Clark Exposition being held in Portland in 1905. Afterward, the police were respectful of the work the group had done and installed Baldwin as the “Superintendent of the Women’s Auxiliary to the Police Department for the Protection of Girls.” She, too, had a badge and the power of arrest but her office was in the local YWCA.

I am indebted to Mike Callahan for the additional informaiton about Minnie Barton, LA’s first probation officer. For more information, see Mike’s helpful comments below.

Read, too, about the Invention of the Polygraph.

Detroit’s story is a truly American story, and it’s unique because of its prime location in the Midwest. By understanding what happened in Michigan through the years, we can more fully comprehend the story of our country, from the earliest settlers to the growth of a city and the development of a wide variety of American businesses.

Detroit: An Illustrated Timeline by Detroit resident and author Paul Vachon is a new book out from Reedy Press that tells Detroit’s stories in vignettes.  In style, the book is a beautiful coffee-table book. In substance, it makes for delightful reading. While the vignettes are written so they are easily sampled, the chronological timeline makes the book easy to read straight through.

Here are some interesting take-aways:

Location, Location, Location

Like other parts of the country, Detroit’s location affected the ebb and flow of the population. Native Americans saw that transportation was easier by the river, and white fur traders followed their example.  Later, settlers realized the river was one of the few waterway connections from the Great Lakes to the Saint Lawrence Seaway. This meant that furs and other good could be shipped all the way to the East Coast.

Militarily, the location was sought after by both Britain and France.  Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac (1658-1730) established Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit in 1701 on behalf of Louis XIV. France maintained its hold until 1760, when the British assumed dominance during the French and Indian War. The British held it until the American Revolution, and as that war concluded, the area around Detroit was taken over by the United States.

Later on, the nearby water for power and the ease of shipping brought various industries to Detroit, and the town grew.

Slavery and the Civil War

Though Detroit was part of the Northwest Ordinance where slavery was forbidden, many settlers arrived with slaves and met with little interference.

Seymour Finney, a Detroit hotelier, was a hero of the Underground Railroad. Finney advertised his hotel as a place for slave hunters to stay, and they happily bought liquor from him. Meanwhile, Finney maintained a barn nearby where he sheltered slaves until they could be transported to safety in Canada.

When Detroit citizens were called to fight for the Union, Michigan provided many infantry regiments, sharpshooters, cavalry members, and engineers. Over the course of the war, over 90,000 men from Michigan fought for the Union side.

As the war continued, it was clear that it was going to be a protracted and bloody war. In 1861 a Commission was formed to conceive of how these people would be memorialized.

Ultimately, 14,000 people from Michigan died during those years…some from combat and many from disease. As a tribute to all who sacrificed, the commission opted to raise money for a Soldiers and Sailors Monument.

Dedicated on April 9, 1872 and designed by neoclassical sculptor Randolph Rogers, the monument remains an important part of Detroit.

Detroit Becomes a Hub of Industry

Cars and Motown music are inextricably linked with the city of Detroit, but Detroit is also the location of a good number of other important American advances in business and science. Here are a few:

Parke-Davis Research Laboratory was started by physician and pharmacist Samuel Duffield with Hervey Coke Parke in 1866, and they were joined in 1867 by George S. Davis. The company became one of the world’s largest pharmaceutical companies and is now part of Pfizer.

Parke-Davis changed the face of medicine by establishing the importance of standardizing medicines. They also worked toward a method for conducting clinical trials. These trials continue to be a vital method used for testing the safety and efficacy of new drugs.

Stroh’s Beer (1850) was an early and popular product of Detroit. The company existed as a separate entity for 150 years (until 2000). In the U.S. The Stroh’s brand is still sold by Pabst Brewing Company.

The best-known name in adding machines started in St. Louis, but when it was time to build a factory for large-scale production, the Burroughs Adding Machine Company (originally called the Arithmometer Company) moved to Detroit. Eventually the company was purchased by ElectroData and is now part of Sperry Corp.

Motown Music began when Berry Gordy tried his hand at songwriting and started his first record label in 1959. Less than a year later, Gordy incorporated as Motown Record Corporation. While he had skill as a songwriter, he proved that what he did better than almost anyone was recognize talent. The music industry is forever changed.

By 1972, Motown moved to Los Angeles, but even today, the mere mention of “Motown Sound” brings thoughts of Detroit.

The Auto Industry Comes to Town

Because early experimentation with horseless carriages in the Detroit area proved successful, the city gained a gravitational pull for others who wanted to learn about the industry.

Charles Brady King’s early success attracted notice. In 1896, when he set out to test his first automobile on the streets of Detroit, he was followed by his colleague Henry Ford riding a bicycle. They were also accompanied by several policemen. When King stopped the car at the end of his route in Cadillac Square, the police tried to ticket him for “disturbing the peace.”

Other men who arrived here with automotive dreams were Ransom Olds  Brothers James Ward Packard and William Doud Packard. The Packards started out in Warren, Ohio, but when they heard that the best architect for  factories was operating in Detroit, they moved their operation north and hired Albert Kahn.

The Dodge Brothers got their start making parts for other automotive companies. It wasn’t until 1914 that they made a car of their own, marketing it as a Dodge Touring Car.

And of course, Henry Ford and William Durant were two of the biggest names in Detroit’s early car industry. Ford opted to perfect one design and make it affordable, and breaking sales records with his Model T.

William C. Durant made a fortune selling horse-drawn vehicles, but when he saw that automobiles were the future, he began buying and taking over struggling brands, creating General Motors.

Arsenal of Democracy

The term “Arsenal of Democracy” arose in a speech given on December 29, 1940, by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. His speech was a “call to arms” to support the Allies by providing assistance in the form of weapons, planes, trucks, and tanks.

Roosevelt stressed that a German victory would be disastrous for the U.S.

Because Detroit already invested in plants and equipment for making cars, it was easier to transform those operations than to start new. Factories halted the production of automobiles for civilian use and began producing jeeps, M-5 tanks, and B-24 bombers.

Within the first year and a half following the attack of Pearl Harbor, 350,000 workers from the American South and elsewhere moved to Detroit to join in the war effort. Women were also hired for factory labor.

When the government turned to Henry Ford for help with production of the B-24 Liberator, Edsel Ford, Charles Sorenson, and one of Edsel’s sons undertook research and soon a new plant was built west of Detroit, near Ypsilanti, Michigan. By the summer of 1944, Willow Run was building a bomber an hour, and eventually almost half of all bombers were made at Willow Run.

Roosevelt honored Detroit’s contribution by declaring it “the great arsenal of democracy.”

Bones of a Beautiful City

From very early in Detroit’s history, the city held promise of being a beautiful place.

In 1805, the city was largely destroyed by fire. When a new layout was planned, it was copied from Washington D.C.’s plan designed by Pierre L’Enfant, with a hub-and-spoke system radiating outward.

Over the years, citizen generosity and city government’s foresight have added to Detroit’s potential. Palmer Park is on land dedicated by the Palmer family with the provision that the virgin forest there be preserved.

Belle Isle, an island retreat and now a park in the middle of the Detroit River, became a Detroit preserve because of the wisdom of the city government. The town purchased it from the estate of Joseph Campeau.

Detroit hit bottom in 2013 when it declared bankruptcy, and the downtown blight was worrisome. But small businesses and individuals followed the lead of a precedent set in the 1890s. When times are tough in the inner city, start gardens and farms. Now there is an active urban farm movement with greenery dotting some of the downtown properties.

The center of the city features some of the most distinguished buildings in the world. Architects Albert Kahn, Daniel Burnham and Cass Gilbert are just a few who have left their indelible mark on the city.

In 1884, James Scripps, who made his fortune in the newspaper business, had the foresight to promote the idea of a major art museum. It is now the Detroit Institute of the Arts. Scripps later donated much of his priceless collection of Dutch and Flemish Art.

Future Looks Bright

Because the core of the city is sound, companies are moving into Detroit, realizing it’s a good investment.

Shinola, a luxury goods company founded in 2011, made a big commitment to Detroit, and Dan Gilbert, the founder of Quicken Loans made a deal with Detroit that he would move his headquarters there. The initial commitment brought 1700 people into the city center. Since that time, Gilbert and others have continued to invest.

To enjoy reading about Detroit’s past, Detroit: An Illustrated Timeline is available wherever books are sold, including online retailers, Amazon and Barnes & Noble.

***

To read about other stories from Detroit, click here to read about Paul Vachon’s book about the People of Detroit.

And click here to read about Former Newsboys of Detroit Doing Good. 

Leroy Colombo became deaf when he suffered spinal meningitis when he was seven years old (1912). He grew up to be a remarkably good lifeguard. Being deaf might have disqualified him for lifeguarding under certain circumstances, but Leroy’s deafness seemed to make him even better at his job.

When he was on the beach of Galveston Island, his eyes scanned the water constantly. The sound of the surf, children playing, or seagulls cawing did not distract him. Having grown up blocks from the ocean, he knew the tides and the currents so well that he could sense any alarming disruption in the water. Simply put, he was one of the best lifeguards ever.

For many years he was listed in The Guinness Book of World Records for the record number of lives he saved. Galveston’s Chamber of Commerce documented it at 907; in all likelihood, there were even more.

To understand, Leroy Colombo (1905-1974) and his noteworthy accomplishments, we need to look at his background, consider the waters of the barrier island of Galveston (27 miles south of Houston and a big tourist destination), and recognize that lifeguarding was in its infancy.

Leroy Colombo

Leroy’s parents emigrated from Italy to Galveston, a town that was then known as the Ellis Island of the West, because there were many jobs. Up until 1900, Galveston was the main deepwater port in Texas, shipping out almost as much cotton as New Orleans. It was a great place for immigrants. Many found jobs at the port, and others found work in town to keep the port workers housed and fed. It was a true melting pot, and though it was located in the Jim Crow South, townspeople of all backgrounds tended to get along.

Leroy was the 5^th child out of what would be a family of 8 children–three sons and five daughters. In 1912-13, an outbreak of spinal meningitis swept through Texas, and Leroy was among its victims. Antibiotics had not yet been discovered, so the only hope for a return to health was giving a patient rest and plenty of hydration.

Leroy’s Recovery

Leroy was among the fortunate who recovered, but he was initially paralyzed from the waist down, and the illness permanently cost him his hearing. In some patients, the paralysis can ease over time, and Leroy was helped by his two brothers who refused to give up on him. They took him swimming daily, and  they encouraged him to walk some of the time by holding him upright between the two of them so that he could try to use his legs. Within a year, Leroy was walking again.

A year after Leroy’s illness, his father died from a heart condition. The oldest son, Nick, needed to leave school to support the family. The family faced the added burden of Leroy who was not doing well in a classroom where he could not hear. One of his uncles heard about the Texas School for the Deaf (a public school established in Austin in 1856) and encouraged his sister to send Leroy there.

School for the Deaf

This move altered Leroy’s life for the better. In addition to gaining an education, he learned sign language and found a community with whom he could talk. There was a creek nearby, and when he was not in class, Leroy could be found swimming. He was only 12 when he rescued his first drowning victim.

Colombo Returns to Galveston

After almost 6 years in Austin, Colombo returned to Galveston. He was thrilled to be back near the water.

Colombo was a gifted athlete and very strong swimmer; he was among the early surfers in the Galveston waters; he swam in races of all lengths but excelled in deepwater swimming. Colombo also loved to perform. He could clown around and dive from high boards with the best of them.

But Galveston was a tricky area for all levels of swimmers. On the Gulf side of the island the water is treacherous. There are sandbars and places where the ocean floor drops away unexpectedly. The riptides are a constant issue, pulling under experienced and inexperienced swimmers alike.

The peril was increased because in the early 1900s, few people learned water safety. The first swimming programs in the U.S. began in 1912 (see Wilbert E. Longfellow), and the programs were slow to spread throughout the country. Those who came to Galveston for vacation often did not know how to swim, because few towns and cities had public access to pools.

Yet summers were hot, and there was no air conditioning until the late 1920s-1930s. Many traveled to Galveston to enjoy the cooling ocean breezes, and of course, they went into the water.

Take unpredictable currents and mix in crowds of people who don’t know how to swim (or how to swim well), and Galveston had the makings of daily disaster.

Lifeguarding in the Early Days

Throughout the country, most lifeguards were volunteers—self-appointed groups of men (and a very few women)—who made it their job to patrol the waters. In Galveston, they created an official club for lifeguards. The young men who qualified for the Galveston Toboggan and Surf Club were the first tier of lifeguards along the beachfront.

To become a member, there was a stiff entrance exam: Swimmers had to swim for three straight hours without floating or using any form of outside support. Colombo, at age 18, passed on his first try in 1923.

Would Colombo have qualified if there had been an interview process as well? Probably not. Then—and now—deaf people face obstacles in getting hired for many mainstream jobs.

Aince that time, researchers have learned that Colombo may have been a better lifeguard because he couldn’t hear. Almost all lifeguards see a problem before they are able to hear someone crying for help. The roar of the ocean or the shouts of children often block out other sounds. Colombo’s senses were particularly well tuned for what needed to be observed.

Galveston Lifeguards

Colombo’s additional advantage was that he grew up near the Galveston waters. He had intimate knowledge of how the ocean could behave in all types of weather. When he was on the beach, he was constantly scanning the waters looking for abnormal movement of people. Drowning does not always involve wild waving; sometimes a swimmer is worrisomely still. All those signs were ones Colombo recognized as possible calls for help.

Lifeguarding in the Galveston waters in that day was generally a three-step process. The best first step was throwing a line to a victim. Second was swimming out with a float. The third step—and the one that Leroy primarily used–was a swimming rescue.

Swimming rescues are difficult as the drowning victim may panic and make a too-tight hold around the rescuer’s neck or thrash about so wildly that the rescuer can’t take hold of the person to swim in. In that day, lifeguards were encouraged to knock out a swimmer who was inhibiting the rescue. Colombo sometimes resorted to that.

Daring Rescues

Colombo’s rescues often made news—he rescued drivers from cars that went into the ocean; he often had to bring out multiple victims when well-intended family members entered the water thinking they could save the struggling person. Colombo often had to rescue the original victim as well as those who were trying to help.

One summer a big group of deaf people came down to visit Leroy. Six of the men were standing in what started out as calm waters. Then the undertow took all six off their feet. Colombo was left to bring them all in one by one.

During World War II, the beaches were overrun by soldiers on leave before shipping out, and the crowds were overwhelming. On one single afternoon, he saved 19 people.

One of Colombo’s most dramatic rescues was when a tugboat hit a barge, and the barge burst into flames that quickly engulfed the tugboat. To rescue those on board, Colombo dove under the flames several times to save the men.

Colombo Continued to Compete

Throughout the 1920s and ‘30s, Colombo also performed and raced. His specialty was sea-water distance racing. (This is a sport that is no longer encouraged, as it’s viewed as too dangerous.)

In addition to a 5k race held at the opening of the Galveston beach season each year, there were also competitions to swim across the Gulf—a 15-mile journey that many who entered could not finish. One year fourteen swimmers began the race. Leroy Colombo was the first come in. Forty-five minutes later, his brother finished—all the other swimmers quit before the end of the race.

Another year, Colombo raced against the fellow who held the amateur Athletic Union National Endurance title. In both 1924 and 1925, Colombo bested him—one year he did so by a full 90 minutes.

Those who saw Leroy Colombo swim said that his secret was an unwavering pace. He just kept swimming.

Colombo remained active in several sports teams made up of alumni from the School for the Deaf. As part of the team, he traveled to Houston, San Antonio, Biloxi, and St. Louis for races and frequently won. Galveston loved the publicity for the city. The Chamber of Commerce attempted to raise money to send him to England to train for the Olympics but it never came to pass.

Lifeguard Duties

In addition to saving lives, lifeguards tended to many other matters. They aided swimmers stung by jellyfish; they policed the beach, cleaning up around the bathhouses; and they scolded children who didn’t clean up after themselves.

Because they were volunteer workers until the mid-1940s, they all did what they could to make money. Some split the small profits from a concession renting umbrellas, chairs and floats. Most also took jobs at restaurants and casinos that would hire extra people for the night shifts.

Galveston Changes

Attracting tourists became even more important after Hurricane Isaac wiped out so much of the area in 1900. (Isaac holds the record as the deadliest natural disaster in the U.S. Between 6000-8000 people were killed.)  While Galveston was re-building, other companies were dredging out a deepwater port in Houston so that the region would be less dependent on the storm-prone Island.

In response, Galveston worked hard to earn their title as “the Riviera of the South.” Engineers recommended building a 10-mile long, 17-foot high seawall to protect against floods and hurricane storm surges. It still helps protect Galveston today.

Professor Jean F. Andrews, who has written extensively about Colombo, including her book, High Tides, Low Tides, The Story of Leroy Colombo, notes that all Colombo’s rescues were good for Galveston, and the newspaper was happy to write them up. Galveston had a vested interest in assuring future tourists that it was a safe place to come for a visit.

More Leisure Attractions

When prohibition was enacted in 1920, Galveston’s geography meant that they could bring in liquor or store it offshore with very little trouble. The town became Vegas before there was a Las Vegas. Major entertainers made a point to appear in Galveston, and casinos, partying, and prostitution were the order of the day. There was never a shortage of liquor.

Like most lifeguards, Colombo loved being a part of the Galveston “scene.” He was a drinker, so he loved the night life. As a strong well-built man, he was used as a bouncer at a lot of the clubs, and no one particularly monitored whether he’d had a few beers.

Law Comes to Galveston

After World War II, the Texas legislature wanted the town cleaned up. The casinos began cat-and-mouse games they played regularly with the an arm of the sheriff’s department, the Texas Rangers. The Balinese Room, one of the clubs where Colombo worked, was built on a pier. If you walked the length of the covered pier (about 200 feet), you would come to the “members only” casino.

One summer, the Texas Rangers arrived every night for 64 nights running hoping for a bust. They never achieved it.

Each evening followed a similar pattern. The Rangers entered the pier, and a signal from the business manager would go to the casino. Crap tables became bridge tables and slot machines were folded into the wall. If the owners had time to spare, then they cued the band. As the Rangers entered, the bandleader would announce: “And Ladies and Gentlemen, we give you in person, the Texas Rangers.”

The Balinese Room finally closed in 1960.

Personal Life

Leroy Colombo was fortunate to have six years within a community of deaf people. While he loved being on the beach in Galveston, it was a lonely existence. No one in his family ever learned to sign, and while some classmates came down to visit him, there were many days when he could only share simple lip-reading conversations with others.

And he never lost interest in trying to find a way to re-gain his hearing. During these years, medicine men circulated throughout the U.S. promising cures for everything from arthritis and “dropsies” to deafness.

Leroy bought into one fellow’s theory that Leroy could regain his hearing through a “plane cure.” He became friends with Army Airman Lt. G.H. McHenry, and McHenry took him up daily for a period of time.  They would fly up to 11,000 feet and then McHenry would bring the plane down quickly to 7000 feet. Colombo said he heard some of the sounds of the plane, and he desperately hoped it would restore more of his hearing.

Deaf Fraternal Society Important

Health insurance was virtually impossible for a deaf person to obtain during those years. Most deaf people are just as healthy as anyone else, but fear kept insurance companies from writing policies for them.

The Fraternal Society of the Deaf (FRAT) grew out of graduates from the Texas School for the Deaf, and among their accomplishments was negotiating group health insurance rates for its members.

As Colombo grew older, his health worsened. He inherited his father’s heart condition, and he drank heavily, eventually causing a bleeding ulcer.

When he didn’t feel well, he couldn’t do the odd jobs that helped him support himself. He finally had to turn to his deaf friends for help in paying dues to the fraternal order so that he could continue to get the healthcare he needed.

Colombo’s Last Years

Colombo retired from his position as a lifeguard at the age of 62 because of his health. He continued to swim a mile daily, winter and summer, for the next six years until he just couldn’t do it anymore. After that he lived for only another few weeks.

After Colombo’s death, the Galveston Police Chief, D.K. Lack said: “He was one of greatest lifeguards that ever lived. He saved more people that I ever heard of or knew. Colombo could sense anything going on in the water and see it before anyone else could. He’s a legend in the city of Galveston.” (Lack was quoted in The Deaf American, 1974.)

Leroy Colombo Honored in Many Ways

Leroy Colombo’s passing was noted in the Texas Legislature by a moment of silence. Many towns in Texas flew flags at half mast.

Other honors followed. The 5K race held annually in Galveston is known as the Leroy Colombo race. Fittingly, it is a fundraiser for the beach patrol. Several markers in Galveston note the life of Leroy Colombo. He would have particularly loved the one that is by the seawall that is just blocks from the house where he grew up. That stretch of the beach is also known as Colombo’s View.

The Texas School for the Deaf also honored him. In 2002, Colombo was inducted into the Texas School for the Deaf Athletic Hall of Fame. In 2006, the school named their Swim Center after him.

Despite Colombo’s ups and downs, he lived as he wanted where he wanted. One of his friends said: “He couldn’t hear the roar of the surf, but he saw the sun and water, and he felt the sand between his toes every day.”

Water safety is important for people of all backgrounds and ages. To help children with special needs, www.safety.com has put together a special guide: Water Safety Guide for Children with Special Needs. Very helpful!

To read about another deaf person who excelled in her career, read Kitty O’Neil, Stuntwoman.

And to read about how deaf education came to the U.S. read Alice Cogswell: Bright Child Who Inspired Deaf Education.

The school safety patrol system using older elementary school children to help younger children navigate the streets was created much earlier than one would expect. The program dates to 1920, a time when there were relatively few cars on the roads.

The children were taught to role model safety on the streets and share safe practices with younger children. From the beginning, safety patrols learned to direct children as to when it was safe to cross the streets; they were never to try to direct traffic.

Today some communities still have a Junior Safety Patrol program, but school districts have generally turned to hiring adult guards who can have authority over the children as well as the traffic.

Patrol Solves an Early Safety Problem

There were relatively few cars on the road during the third decade of the twentieth century, but because there were no systematic rules for traffic it created chaos on the streets.

People learned to drive through trial-and-error, and states did not yet require driver’s licenses. (By 1935, only 39 states required drivers to have licenses, and most did not require testing to qualify for a license.)

There were also few ways to control traffic. Some communities erected “stop” signs, but the first traffic signal was not even invented until 1915. Most communities did not see the need for the electronic devices initially, so the signals appeared slowly, mainly in major population centers.

Pedestrians were also part of the problem. People on foot were accustomed to crossing wherever it was convenient. Children were particularly prone to this, darting into traffic without thinking of the consequences.

The First Junior Safety Patrol

More than one location claims to have been first with a safety patrol program, but St. Paul, Minnesota’s program gains credibility because there is full documentation of the process they went through to create the program.

To begin, the city council assigned a full-time staff person to oversee it. Frank Hetznecker was appointed to serve as head of the St. Paul School Police. He spent several months working with school principals to create what the program should be. He also worked with students in refining the way they could be trained to safely help others while also protecting themselves.

Street crossings were to occur at specific street corners where patrols were stationed. The patrol then checked for cars and waited for them to pass before starting the younger children across the street.

While both public schools and parochial schools use school safety patrols, one of Hetznecker’s biggest advocates was Sister Carmela Hanggi, principal of the Cathedral School in St. Paul. She was an early proponent of the program and was very helpful in providing suggestions and input.  As a result, Hetznecker set up the first monitored crossing (February of 1921) at the biggest intersection near the Cathedral School.

That first year, the St. Paul school police signed up 750 students to participate. The program was deemed a success and was adopted city wide.

St. Paul made a big commitment to the program, assigning Hetznecker to it full time. He invested a lot in his work and arranged for picnics and parades for the patrol boys (and eventually girls) who served.

Other cities that were early in this movement were Omaha (1923) and Seattle (1928).

Becoming a National Program

By the 1930s, the American Automobile Association took over sponsorship of the program and created a unified program that could be used throughout the country. They also sponsored rallies and parades to build enthusiasm for the program. For many years, an annual parade was held in the nation’s capital.

As the program standardized, a pledge was added:

“I pledge to report for duty on time, perform my duties faithfully, strive to prevent accidents, always setting a good example myself, obey my teachers and officers of the patrol, report dangerous student practices, strive to earn the respect of followers.”

Initially, only boys could become safety patrols, but this changed over time. Starting in the late 1940s, girls seem to have been added on a community-by-community basis. In Davenport, Iowa, a school principal is quoted in the local paper The Daily Times (May 20, 1952): “We have found that the girls seem to take more interest in their duties,” said Sister Edigna, principal of the St. Joseph School. “They remain at their post and they don’t play while on duty.”

The Sister said that the girls have only one complaint: “When meetings are held for the school patrols, the boys dominate the sessions.”

The Sam Browne Belt

If you ever served as safety patrol, then you well remember the patrol belt. Initially they were off-white, and the straps were made of webbing. The belt section went around the waist, and there was a shoulder strap that went over the right shoulder. A silver Junior Safety Patrol badge was worn on the shoulder strap.

The belts were named for British General Sir Samuel Browne (1824-1901) who lost his left arm in battle. This disability made it difficult for him to draw his sword, because in the late 19^th century, a soldier would use one hand (usually the left) to steady the scabbard while the right hand withdrew the sword.

With only one arm, Browne couldn’t do this, but he wanted to remain in the military.  After testing different systems, he added a belt that crossed over his shoulder to anchor the scabbard so it was steady enough that he could remove the sword with only one hand. This gave him an additional idea. He had D-rings added for a holster for his pistol and a small leather case for binoculars. They were attached in such a way that he could remove either using only his right hand.

Soldiers saw the merit of Browne’s system, and they began copying it.

Belts for Students

From early on, the Junior Safety Patrol program issued the belts to students for the duration of their assignment. Student patrols took great pride in having the belts. Part of their duty was keeping the belt clean and the badge polished. Some patrol groups also used garrison caps for the patrols. These, however, were difficult to keep on one’s head, and students were required to wear them folded over their belt when not being worn.

At the end of the assignment, all patrol items were turned in and passed on to the new group of volunteers.

Today the belts are in the same design but they differ in color. Most are made of lime green straps that are reflective. (Some districts still use a reflective orange.) Districts that issue hats now hand out baseball caps. Some cities where the weather is often inclement make certain that the students are issued reflective waterproof ponchos.

Despite these changes, one aspect of the program remains the same: Students do not direct traffic, they help other students understand when it is safe to enter roadways.

Today there are 654,000 children serving as safety patrols in 34,500 schools throughout the United States, according to a AAA spokesperson.

To read about how car seat belts eventually came about, read The Crusaders who Campaigned for Car Safety.

For more stories about schools in the past, read Remember Duck & Cover?

Or Dick and Jane: The Story of These Early Readers.

Sybil Ludington is known for her 40-mile night ride through parts of New York and Connecticut to alert American Patriots that the British military had come ashore in Connecticut and were marching inland. The date was April 26, 1777, and Sybil was the person chosen to alert the colonial militia so that the British could be pushed back.

About Sybil Ludington

Sybil Ludington (1761-1839) was the 16-year-old daughter of Colonel Henry Ludington of Fredericksburg in Dutchess County (the town is now Patterson, New York).

Sybil’s name is spelled in many ways; her tombstone is Sibbell. Other spellings to describe her are Sebil and Sibyl and Cybil. It is said she herself used the spelling, “Sebal.”

Her father was the commander of the Seventh Regiment of the Dutchess County Militia. The militia pre-dated the Revolutionary War. It consisted of colonists who volunteered to help protect their communities when needed. During the war, they supplemented the Continental Army. Those in the Continental Army served full-time during their term of conscription.

The challenge for the militia was dual responsibilities: needing to take care of matters at home while also being available to serve in the military. Certain times of year were particularly difficult, and in April it was important to be at home for planting. If the farmers did not get their fields started, there would be less food to eat.

The Threat

Colonists heard rumors that the British planned to destroy colonial supplies when they found them. Fishkill, New York, was a prime location for storage, but no definite timing was known. In preparation for this, the colonists moved some of their supplies to Danbury, Connecticut, to minimize the risk in Fishkill.

The British must have gotten word of the new location, as their latest plan was to land at Compo Beach in Connecticut and march inland. Their destination was Danbury. Their plan was to steal or destroy the colonial supplies. However, after landing on Compo Beach (near what is now Westport), they marched north toward Fairfield to mislead any scouts sent out by the Patriots.

Colonel Ludington Alerted

On the evening of April 26, 1777, Henry Ludington and his family were at home when an exhausted messenger and his horse pulled up in front of the Ludington house. He informed Ludington that the British military were ashore at Compo Beach. The Redcoats met up with the Loyalists in the area. (These were colonists who remained loyal to the Crown.) Both Loyalists and Redcoats were marching northwest in Connecticut.

To have the British Army marching inland was a serious threat. Ludington feared their goal was Danbury. He needed to gather his militia, who were all at home tending to their farms, to push back the British.

Alerting the Militia

The messenger who brought the news was totally spent as was his horse. Ludington had no nearby neighbors to send out to notify his militia, but he often relied on his older children. Sybil and her two sisters were the oldest of what would eventually be 12 children. Sybil and her next-in-age sister Rebecca regularly carried messages for the Colonel who owned property elsewhere in the county. One of them would have to do it.

While anyone would worry about sending a rider out on such a dangerous mission, Ludington had confidence that his sixteen-year-old daughter Sybil could do it. She was an excellent rider, and she knew the terrain and the whereabouts of Patriot’s farms.

The additional challenges for the rider were the timing and the weather. The message needed to be carried immediately, even though it was night. The weather had also been terrible. Several days of rain left the roads muddy, and the rain was still pelting down. Very little moonlight shone through.

The ride would be difficult, but he knew if anyone could do it, Sybil could.

Carrying the News

Sybil left home shortly after 9 p.m., riding an experienced horse. She carried with her a long, sturdy stick. Her father told her not to take time to dismount…to use the stick to rap on the windows or doors, shouting: “Call to arms! Call to arms! The Regulars and Tories are burning Danbury! The Militia is needed! Call to arms!”

At each home, she rode up and rapped hard on the door and gave her call. Generally, a sleepy homeowner holding a lighted candle peeked out to see who was at the house at that hour. A few recognized Sybil; all understood her call.

The militia knew that in such an emergency they were to get to Fredericksburg quickly to receive orders from Colonel Ludington.

After Sybil left home, the rest of the family were busy making cartridges that would be used in the muskets the men used.  Henry melted lead to make the musket balls, and other family members cut paper to wrap the ball and pack each with extra gunpowder.

Ludington Learns Sybil Made a Good Start

As the first men arrived in Fredericksburg, the Colonel was relieved to see them and to know that Sybil was making her way along the route. More men came in, and when about two hundred gathered, he led the first group out to find the British. Word was that the British had already sacked Danbury and were on the way to Redding, Connecticut.

As Sybil traveled the route, more men made their way to Fredericksburg. When they had another couple of hundred, they, too, made their way toward Redding.

Sybil’s Ride

Ultimately, Sybil rode a 40-mile loop to spread the news through what is now Putnam and Dutchess Counties. Her ride is described in a family memoir, Colonel Henry Ludington: A Memoir, written in 1907 by Willis Fletcher Johnson:

One who even now rides from Carmel to Cold Spring will find rugged and dangerous roads, with lonely stretches. Imagination only can picture what it was a century and a quarter ago, on a dark night, with reckless bands of Cowboys and Skinners [highway men] abroad in the land. But the child performed her task, clinging to a man’s saddle, and guiding her steed with only a hempen halter, as she rode through the night, bearing the news of the sack of Danbury.

There is no extravagance in comparing her ride with that of Paul Revere and its midnight message. Nor was her errand less efficient than his. By daybreak, thanks to her daring, nearly the whole regiment was mustered before her father’s house at Fredericksburg, and an hour or two later was on the march for vengeance on the raiders.

Highway men often lurked along the roads to rob unsuspecting travelers. The fact that Sybil was not stopped may be testimony to the bad weather. Not even a bandit thought it worth being out.

Arriving back home Sunday morning, her clothes were soaked through from the rain; she was hungry and exhausted. Her mother greeted her with relief and gave her a warm breakfast and put her to bed.

Sybil Ludington’s Accomplishment

Recent writers who tell Sybil’s story note that the tale might be apocryphal. Some speculate that the story came about long after the war to glorify women. Primary documents disprove this theory…and remember, women didn’t have the vote in 1907 so why would anyone be worried about creating heroines?

The first known telling of the story was in the 1880s by well-respected historian Mary Lamb. She reported that she used primary documents, they are not cited in her article. Then in the early 1900s, Sybil’s great nephew (Louis S. Patrick), a historian in Connecticut, decided to tell Colonel Ludington’s story. He gathered papers from Connecticut as well as from Dutchess and Putnam Counties, and then turned to seek out family diaries and journals of which there were plenty.

His effort became a journal article about Colonel Ludington that mentioned Sybil’s ride. After this brief biography, the family must have commissioned Willis Fletcher Johnson to write a more complete biography. Johnson worked from diaries, journals, and war documents gathered by Louis Patrick and produced “Henry Ludington: A Memoir.” The memoir was published privately in 1907, paid for by Ludington’s grandchildren. (The memoir is now available online.)

These early reports about Sybil were all included as part of a bigger story, and none of them glorified her as a hero. The story was told matter-of-factly: Sybil’s father needed help, and she was the oldest child. He turned to her and to his other children for help when he needed it.

Other Demonstrations of Family Unity

The British and Americans were no strangers to each other, having fought together during the French and Indian War. Colonel Ludington fought for the British and was well-respected. When he turned against the Crown, Tories and Loyalists knew this was a harmful thing for them.

And because the Colonel was a great militia leader for the Patriots, British officers offered a bounty of 300 guineas to anyone who could capture the skillful military leader. (Three hundred guineas would have been more than a colonist could make in a year.)

Rumors spread about the bounty, so the Patriots knew of it and were protective of their colonel. If members of the militia were in Fredericksburg, some of the men were assigned to guard the Ludington house.

But since the militia was part-time, they weren’t always there. For this reason, the family drilled for what to do if there were an attack. They suspected that any type of trouble would occur at night. Many evenings, Sybil and Rebecca kept watch on the woods from the second floor. Overnight, Henry slept lightly, listening for any trouble.

On Guard

One night, Sybil and Rebecca heard a commotion outside. The family knew what had to be done. The girls woke the next-oldest children who put on the Patriot hats their father gave them for such an occasion. Each also had a musket.

Sybil took candles, lighting and placing them in the rear of the upper story rooms where the lighting would provide long shadows of the children as they went back and forth in front of the light. In their hats and shouldering the muskets (probably with some difficulty) they patrolled back and forth before the candles. The Loyalists decided the militia was standing guard. This was enough to send them back to their own homes, leaving the Ludingtons alone.

The older children were also given the code words identifying spies. Because the Ludington house was on a frequently-traveled road, Ludington became a place where spies could pick up and leave messages. Even if their father wasn’t home, if the fellow knew the code words, they were permitted to come in and wash up and be fed.

The Ludington family had a lot of responsibility, and the took it seriously.

Later Life

In 1784, Sybil Ludington married Edmond Ogden. Ogden served in the Continental Army during the War, and he was also a tenant and tavernkeeper of an inn on Henry Ludington’s property. Sybil likely met him on one of her trips carrying miscellaneous messages.

When Colonel Ludington sold the property, Sybil and Edmond bought another inn in the Catskills where they raised their son, Henry.  When Edmond died in 1799, Sybil stepped in to run the inn.

Son Henry married and became an attorney. When he and his wife decided to move to Unadilla, New York, they didn’t want to leave his widowed mother behind. Sybil joined them, and the couple went on to have several more children.

One of them, Edmund Augustus Ogden (1811-1855), went on to West Point. He had numerous military assignments but is best remembered for overseeing the planning and building of Fort Riley in Kansas.  There is a monument to him there.

The War Was Won by Colonists Like Sybil

The Revolutionary War went on for seven years with battles up and down the East Coast. To win freedom from the Britain required bravery and brilliance from thousands of colonists who saw what had to be done to rid themselves of the tyranny of being ruled from afar.  Sybil was among them.

To read stories of more women during the Revolutionary War, click here. 

A Need for Scholarly Concern?

Modern scholars have worried about the accuracy of the Sybil Ludington’s story.

The incident—the British arriving in Connecticut and torching Danbury—is well-documented. Night riders raised the alarm, but was Sybil among them?

Suspicion of the story arose because the first time Ludington’s ride was documented in a history book, the year was 1880. The thinking goes that the centennial of the Revolution was being celebrated in many ways during that time. Perhaps Sybil’s story fit neatly into that.  (But we also need to acknowledge there are many reasons why a young female teenager’s story might not have been told.)

In an article on this subject in The Smithsonian magazine (March 2022), the writer notes that historian Vincent Dacquino had access to a trove of Ludington family documents. Among his findings was an 1854 letter written by one of Sybil’s nephews. Charles H. Ludington’s letter urged for recognition of her and wrote: “My Aunt Sybil rode on horseback in the dead of night..through a Country infested with Cowboys and Skinners to inform General Putnam.” 

Clearly, the story was told among family members and should lend added credibility to the story as it is told today.

And to read about other teenagers who took charge of their own lives, read about the Abernathy Boys.

Martin Luther King, Jr. was 25 years old when he and his new wife, Coretta, moved to Montgomery, Alabama in 1954. He was to be pastor of Montgomery’s Dexter Avenue Baptist Church.

Less than one year later, Rosa Parks was arrested for refusing to give up her seat to a white person on a Montgomery city bus.

Montgomery’s black leaders were looking for a court challenge to the state and city ordinances stipulating segregated buses. Mrs. Parks, a seamstress who was active with the NAACP, was a perfect test case.

Hastily, leaders called for a meeting of black citizens at the spacious Holt Street Church. Though new to town, Martin Luther King Jr. was known for the power of his sermons, so the leaders asked him to open the meeting.

With less than an hour’s warning about his role in the event, King rose to the occasion. His words energized the citizens that gathered, and the boycott was ultimately effective.

The Holt Street Church was his first public address. He was 25 years old.

Martin Luther King Jr.

King was born in 1929 in Atlanta. He was the middle child of Reverend Martin Luther King Sr. and Alberta King. Growing up, King loved singing and was an active member of the church choir. In the segregated high school he attended, he also was a prominent member of the debate team.

King learned from his father about standing up for yourself.  If a policeman addressed King Sr. as “boy,” the reverend respectfully corrected the officer.

Another time when Martin Sr. took his son shopping for a pair of new shoes, a clerk insisted they move to the back of the store to be served. The Kings left without making a purchase.

There were other indignities, large and small, and Martin absorbed the polite and measured way his father navigated through whatever came his way.

In his teen years, he was invited to compete in a debate competition in Dublin, Georgia, a little over 100 miles southeast of Atlanta.

On the way home, Martin and the teacher were asked to stand so that white people could sit. At first Martin refused, but his coach indicated he needed to get up. Later, King said he was “the angriest he had ever been in his life.”

Education

King attended Morehouse College in Atlanta. During his senior year (1947), he resolved to enter the ministry. He had doubts about the wisdom of becoming a minister, but time and experience made him feel that the church would give him a base for helping mankind.

From Morehouse, King went on toe Crozer Theological Seminary in Upland, Pennsylvania. His father connected him to the reverend at nearby Calvary Baptist Church, and he and a few other students were able to supplement their studies by working with J. Pius Barbour, a highly respected man in the Baptist Church.

On June 18, 1953, King married  Coretta Scott in her hometown of Heiberger, Alabama. One year later, Martin and Coretta moved to Montgomery. King was to be the pastor of the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church.

Montgomery Bus Boycott

The Fourteenth Amendment, ratified in 1868, defined U.S. citizenship and forbade the states from restricting the rights of any citizen. However, in some parts of the country, cities and states overrode the amendment with local Jim Crow laws. Both the city of Montgomery and the state of Alabama maintained ordinances that African Americans had to sit in the rear section of buses. And if a white rider got on and needed a seat, the black person was to yield their seat even if he or she was in the proper section of the bus.

Black leaders in Montgomery were looking for a good opportunity to fight this constitutionally in court. In March of 1955, they thought they had their case when Claudette Colvin was arrested for refusing to give up her seat.

Leaders were preparing the legal work when they learned Claudette was only 15. They knew this challenge wouldn’t be easy, and they didn’t want a minor mixed up in what could be a lengthy protest. They opted to wait it out.

A new opportunity presented itself on December 1, 1955. Rosa Parks and her husband Raymond were active in the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. She also worked as a seamstress in a department store in downtown Montgomery.

Parks Arrested

After work one evening, Rosa boarded her usual bus for her trip home. She took a seat in the first row of the “colored section.” As more people boarded the bus, the driver came back and asked Parks and three others to vacate their seats. The other women did so, but Parks refused.

Rosa Parks was arrested and fined $10 plus $4 in court fees. Her hearing was scheduled for Monday, December 5. She would be kept in jail unless someone came to bail her out.

Parks called E.D. Nixon, one of the city’s well-respected black leaders. He came to the police station and paid bail. He knew this sweet, quiet woman was the perfect person to be a plaintiff in a legal challenge.

Two black organizations—the Women’s Political Council and the Montgomery Improvement Association–had been preparing for this opportunity. The Women’s Political Council circulated a flier announcing a meeting at the Holt Street Church on December 4. The purpose was to launch a bus boycott that would begin on December 5, the day of Parks’s first court hearing.

Holt Street Church

The Holt Street Church was selected for the meeting because it was the largest building available to the community. The leaders search for a big venue was justified. On the night of December 4, the church was filled, and people crowded along the streets and sidewalks surrounding the church. Men began stringing up loud speakers to help the word get out to as many people as possible.

On Sunday afternoon, King was contacted and asked to open the meeting that evening. He had under an hour to decide on his remarks and get to the church. A friend offered to drive him to Holt Street to give him added time to make notes

As they neared Holt Street, they had to park the car. There were so many people that they could not drive any closer. The two men got out and threaded their way through the people.

No one would have recognized King. He and Coretta had moved to Montgomery less than a year ago, and this would be his first public speech.

King’s First Public Speech

King’s mission was to set the scene. Activist and minister Ralph Abernathy would follow King with specifics about the boycott.

As the time for the meeting neared, the Holt Street pastor called King to the podium and introduced the young man.

Reverend King paused for a moment and then began:

“We are here this evening—for serious business.”

He started slowly, pacing his words effectively. “…And you know, my friends, there comes a time when people get tired of being trampled over by the iron feet of oppression.”   There was applause and a chorus of yeses from the listeners. As King’s volume and his cadence grew, the crowd picked up the momentum.

They were with him. Because the loud speakers were spreading the word to those outside, the clapping and foot stomping rolled like a wave.

King also talked of the importance of avoiding violence: “The only weapon that we have in our hands this evening is the weapon of protest.”

Right to Protest

He pointed out the glory that American people have the right to protest, and he prophesied that citizens would …“work with grim and bold determination—to gain justice on the buses in this city.”

As King drew to the conclusion of his 15-minute speech, he built to a crescendo: “And we are determined here in Montgomery –to work and fight ‘until justice runs down like water, and righteousness like a mighty stream!’” citing a paraphrase from the Book of Amos in the Old Testament.

As he slowed and quieted a bit, he ended with: “Sages of the future should look back at the Negroes of Montgomery and say they were ‘a people who had the moral courage to stand up for their rights.’”

King left the podium and found his way out of the church, letting Abernathy take over regarding the requested demands of the city and the process for the boycott.

To listen to a recording of the speech, click here.

The Boycott

The plan was for all black citizens to boycott the city buses. They made up about 75 percent of the ridership at that time, so the city would notice their absence.

Their original ask was simple. They wanted the city to hire some black drivers, and they asked that seating be on a first-come, first-seated policy. Whites would still enter from the front of the bus and blacks would enter from the rear.

But as the strike dragged on, the Montgomery Improvement Association began to see that if they could get the legal case away of the municipal court system, they could ask for the equality they deserved as citizens of the United States.

In the meantime, people still had to get to work. Leaders organized carpools with regular pick-up and drop-off spots. Black taxi drivers agreed to charge only 10 cents (the price of bus fare) for African American riders. Day-to-day life was more difficult, but it could go on.

Leaders also maintained a regular schedule of meetings to keep spirits and enthusiasm up.

Boycott Continues

The boycott continued for more than a year. During this time, the leaders consulted with the NAACP Legal Defense Fund attorneys, Robert L. Carter and Thurgood Marshall.

After consulting with the national group, Alabama-based civil rights attorney Fred Gray approached several women who encountered discrimination from bus drivers. Claudette Colvin, Aurelia Browder, Susie McDonald, Mary Louise Smith and Jeanetta Reese all agreed to become plaintiffs in a federal civil action lawsuit, which permitted Gray to take the case beyond the Alabama court system. (This wasn’t an easy decision for the women. Reese backed out almost immediately because of pressure from her employer.)

On Feb 1, 1956, Fred Gray filed Browder v. Gayle in the U.S. District Court of United States for the Middle District of Alabama on the matter of Montgomery and Alabama bus segregation laws. (Aurelia Browder was selected as lead plaintiff. She was active in black voter registration drives and was in her 30s, giving her the experience and the stamina for what was likely to come.) The case was filed against the mayor of Montgomery, W. A. Gayle.

As specified by law, this type of case was to be heard in a federal district court by three judges.

Initial Ruling

On June 13, 1956, the District Court ruled that “the enforced segregation of black and white passengers on motor buses operating in the City of Montgomery violates the Constitution and laws of the United States” because the conditions deprived people of equal protection under the Fourteenth Amendment. The court further enjoined the state of Alabama and the city of Montgomery from continuing to operate segregated buses.

The city and state appealed the decision, and it went to the U.S. Supreme Court. On November 13, 1956, the Supreme Court upheld the District Court’s ruling and ordered Alabama and Montgomery to desegregate their buses.

One month after the mayor was handed official notice by federal marshals, the Montgomery buses began the desegregation process. The first integrated buses rolled on Montgomery streets on December 21, 1956. The Montgomery Bus Boycott ended

Violence Continues

The ruling was met with resistance and violence. Because Montgomery maintained segregated bus stops, shooters took aim at waiting black citizens. Some snipers also fired into buses, maiming targeted passengers.

Then in January 1957, tension escalated. Four black churches and the homes of prominent black leaders were bombed. (King’s house was bombed a year earlier; the bomb set set at his home in 1957 was diffused before exploding.)

On Jan 30, 1957, the Montgomery police arrested seven bombers, all members of the Ku Klux Klan. The arrests largely brought an end to the busing-related violence.

Moving Forward

Though it was accomplished with sacrifice and struggle by all the black citizens of Montgomery, a segregation law was removed by the city and the state.

This was the earliest mass protest on behalf of civil rights in the United States, and it brought national and international attention to the issue of American treatment of African American citizens.

Martin Luther King Jr., though only 26 when victory was declared, emerged as a national leader of the civil rights movement. His nonviolent method of protest prevailed throughout the 1960s.

To read more about Martin Luther King, click: “MLK: Thoughts to Live By,” or “Martin Luther King Jr. on the Declaration of Independence.“