William Shemin’s heroic effort during World War I is a profound testament to valor, resilience, and the enduring American spirit. His heroism was undeniably documented by those who fought alongside him, yet the recognition he deserved was delayed for nearly a century by the systemic prejudice of an era that resisted embracing its Jewish soldiers.

Despite not receiving the Medal of Honor in 1919, Bill Shemin (1896-1973) remained fully devoted to the United States. He saw America through the eyes of his parents, who fled the brutal pogroms of Russia to find refuge and opportunity on American shores. To Shemin, military service was not just a duty, but a proud repayment to the nation that had welcomed his family.

He moved through the rest of his life with a quiet nobility, instilling a deep sense of hard work and patriotism in his children and grandchildren—several of whom followed him into military service.

Justice Served

His legacy eventually became a catalyst for justice. One of his daughters fought tirelessly for his record to be reconsidered for the honor he deserved. Eventually, the William Shemin Jewish World War I Veterans Act was passed by Congress in 2011. This landmark legislation ensured that military accomplishments of those who were discriminated against would be met with an open mind. This allowed Jewish veterans of the past to receive the honors they rightfully earned. It also brought about the review of other minorities. 

On June 2, 2015, William Shemin was honored posthumously with the Medal of Honor—the highest military honor in the country.

In addition, Harlem Hellfighter Henry Johnson, a Distinguished Service Cross recipient in World War I, received a well-deserved Medal of Honor in the same White House ceremony at which William Shemin was honored. The Shemin family has generously shared stories of Henry Johnson’s military experiences when Bill Shemin’s story has been being told.

William Shemin’s story was brought to my attention by a staff member at the Weitzman National Museum of American Jewish History where they have an exhibit about him. They also have an excellent online exhibit about Shemin’s life and military career. Click here for the online Shemin exhibit: Above and Beyond the Call of Duty.

Shemin’s Early Life

William Shemin’s parents came from Orsha (modern-day Belarus) in Russia.  The government of Tsar Alexander III urged attacks against the Jewish people. Because of the violence, families like the Shemins fled if they could.

When the Shemins arrived in America, they began life on the lower East Side where Bill was born. With the start of a family, the parents moved to Bayonne, New Jersey.

The suburban environment was a great place for raising children. Bill loved being outdoors and became a great athlete. When he was 15, he was recruited to play for the Bayonne Sea Lions, a semi-professional baseball team. He loved playing ball and appreciated that it was a job for which he was paid.

Forestry School

While he was still in high school, Shemin became aware of a new program that interested him. Syracuse University started a forest ranger school that was to be located in Wanakena, New York, in the heart of the Adirondacks. (The school would eventually become the New York State College of Forestry—the first ever in the country.) 

Shemin applied and was accepted to the school. When he arrived, the students were put to work building classrooms for the program. They literally helped build the school and its curriculum from the ground up. 

Shemin graduated in 1914 and worked for a few years as a ranger. The physical and mental toughness required for the job likely gave Bill Shemin the background for surviving and leading his men on the Vesle River in France.

World War I

When the United States ultimately entered World War I, Bill Shemin was still too young to enlist in the military.  At that time, the required age for military enlistment was 21. But Bill was determined to serve.

In a video interview, his daughter Elsie Shemin-Roth says that her father told his parents that if they didn’t support his enlistment, he would leave and never come home. With that, his father agreed to go with him to assure the enlisting officer that his son was eligible, having just turned 21.

With that, Bill Shemin joined the Army and was sent to basic training in Camp Greene, North Carolina. He was assigned to be a rifleman in Company G, 47^th Infantry Regiment, 4^thDivision (“the Ivy Division,”) with the American Expeditionary Forces in France.

At the time the Ivy Division arrived in France, the fighting was fierce. The Allied forces successfully pushed the Germans away from the Marne River, but by August 7, the Germans paused to dig in and fight. They were on bluffs above the north bank of the Vesle River. The town of Bazoches (by then in ruins) was just below.

The Germans knew the Allies would have to cross the river to attack them, so they maintained their position and hid machine gun nests within the ruins of Bazoches.  From the bluffs, they could disperse mustard gas into the valley with less risk to themselves. This dispersal worsened the situation for the Allies as this meant that troops could not fight without cumbersome gas masks.

Crossing the River

The order for the 47^th Infantry came down the line. They were to get across the river and take Bazoches. As the troops approached the river with the intent to cross it, they were pinned down along a wheat field that ran to the riverbank. During the daytime, soldiers crawled to avoid being seen, but the German machine guns fired relentlessly in a grazing motion, and sharpshooters excelled at picking out any sign of movement. 

The Ivy Division had no time to dig trenches, so the soldiers created “scrapes.” Each man had a tool that looked like a gardening trowel. They moved forward when they could. Then lying flat on the ground, they dug as quickly as possible.  Dirt that was removed was piled on the side of the scrape facing the river to help make each man less visible. The hope was to create something 6-12 inches deep. When the machine gun fire began again, they lay face down, hoping that they would not be hit.  They longed for the time and opportunity to dig foxholes but the best they could usually do was to dig scrapes.

They Persevered

Their goal continued to be to traverse the wheat field (about 150 yards—a football field and a half) to the riverbank and then to cross the river to take out the guns on the other side. Small groups were sent forward looking for the best route. (Not everyone could swim so the area needed to be clear enough that soldier could help soldier as they crossed.)

But the scouting  groups kept being shot down. Several times, Bill Shemin sprang up from his scrape and ran toward the river (and the German guns) to pull men back. One of the three men he saved during these days was Jim Pritchard who remained a lifelong family friend. Pritchard always told his own clan that if there hadn’t been a brave and heroic Bill Shemin, there would not have been any Pritchard descendants at all.

Shemin in Charge

By this time, German sharpshooters had picked off Company G’s officers. It was easy for the Germans to see the glint of their medals, and by this time, Company G was reduced to noncommissioned officers like Bill Shemin who was left to lead the rest of the platoon in a desperate swim across the river to the north side.

Eventually the Ivy Division got the platoon across the river. The Germans were well hidden within the rubble of Bazoches.  The Americans fought with valor, but the pressure was too great.  Bill Shemin saw that his group was greatly diminished in number, and the German onslaught was too powerful. He navigated the men back where they could secure themselves on the side of the Vesle River that they recently left.

Shemin was shot during the fighting in Bazoches, but he refused to stop. A machine-gun bullet pierced his helmet and lodged behind his left ear. His body was also riddled with shrapnel, but he kept going until he finally lost consciousness on the original riverbank where they started. His men got him to a location where an ambulance could take him to a field hospital.  

Hospitalization

Shemin spent the next few months in the hospital recovering.  When he was discharged, he still had shrapnel lodged in his back, and the hearing in his left ear was gone. He was offered an honorable discharge to return home, but Bill Shemin wouldn’t consider it. He wanted to return to his unit.

By this time, the Ivy Division had been sent to the Moselle River Valley in western Germany where they were charged with maintaining order. Shemin was reunited with them, and he was given administrative chores to accommodate his injuries. The men knew well Shemin’s exemplary record, and they respected him.

The “Almost Assignment”

In 1919, Europe was shattered by the war, but John J. Pershing, General of the Armies of the United States, was intent on maintaining order and showing that Europe could recover.  As he traveled through the war-ravaged territory, he requested an honor guard be formed (the “bravest of the brave”). He specified that the force should consist of soldiers who had been decorated with a high-level medal for valor.  This work involved precision drilling and standing as a symbol of American victory.

Shemin was the right height, and his Silver Star had been upgraded to a Distinguished Service Cross. He was a perfect candidate, and his unit put him forward for the honor. 

But when Pershing’s advance man reviewed the personnel records, the officer noted that Shemin was Jewish. Despite his heroics at the Vesle River and the bullet hole in his helmet resulting in lifelong injuries, Shemin was removed from the honor guard. The advance man wanted an “All American” image for the guard. 

Shemin was disappointed, but stayed focused on his military assignment with his men.

His Men Knew

His unit felt differently. Those with whom Shemin served remembered all he had done for them during the war. They knew he deserved the Medal of Honor.

To be considered for the highest military honor in the country, eyewitness accounts were needed as well as testimony from company officers. It was not hard to get men who served with Bill Shemin to speak up.

They knew they had been saved because this 19-year-old  soldier not only executed three rescues (bringing men back from open territory) but he stepped forward to command the platoon—first getting them across the Vesle River, and then spearheading a retreat when the German fighting became more than their surviving group could withstand.  His men wanted to ensure that the story of the “Jewish kid who saved the platoon” wasn’t lost to history.

Despite their efforts, Shemin was not awarded the Medal of Honor at that time. But thanks to those men, all the necessary documents were collected and were available when his daughter finally brought attention to the matter almost one hundred years later.

Back Home

Bill Shemin returned home and was determined to move forward with his life, despite a limp, shrapnel in his back, hearing loss, and what we now know as PTSD.

By this time, Syracuse University had expanded the forest ranger school and had a full-scale College of Forestry. Bill Shemin did not have a college degree, so he enrolled in the forestry program and was an asset to the school. He played varsity football and then lacrosse, graduating in 1923.

He married Bertha Schiffer and they raised three children: daughters Elsie and Ina and son Emmanuel.

His love of growing things continued, so he soon opened his own greenhouse and nursery in the Bronx. The name he chose referred back to his military service with the Fourth Division: Ivy Floral and Landscape (IV or Ivy).   Shemin’s business was very successful, and he became one of the main nurseries from which the parks in New York City purchased their plantings.

In addition to work and family, Shemin also dedicated his time to issues regarding his religion and the military. He was involved with both the Legion of Valor and the Jewish War Veterans. Many men needed assistance finding health care and employment, and Shemin was happy to help. He also stood strongly for Jewish rights.

The Impact of Elsie Shemin-Roth’s Mission

Like many soldiers who fought in World War I or II, Shemin had little interest in talking about his war experience. His daughter, Elsie Shemin-Roth, was always curious. She gained more information when fellow soldier Jim Pritchard, one of the men Bill Shemin carried to safety, came to visit. Pritchard was open about the fact that Shemin was denied the Medal of Honor because of his faith.

In a Legacy Video about her father, Elsie, who became a registered nurse and volunteered for overseas service during the Gulf War, describes how furious she was…and how puzzled she was that her father bore no anger.  But he told her: “War is not about medals. I love my country. I love my men. That’s all that counts.”

The Jewish WWI Veterans Act

In 2002, Elsie Shemin-Roth, saw that Congress had passed legislation that veterans of WWII, Korean, War, and Vietnam would be considered for honors posthumously if the family and friends could show that they were denied because of religion or race.

To Elsie, this was a no-brainer. Why not push for an amendment to the law that included World War I veterans?  She began working through friends, organizations, and her representatives from her Congressional district in Missouri, to push for an expansion of the law.

In 2011, with the passage of the William Shemin Jewish World War I Veterans Act (part of the 2002 National Defense Authorization Act), the Pentagon was compelled to go back and look at all Jewish veterans who received the Distinguished Service Cross or Navy Cross.

Fortunately, her father saved documentation from his war service, so he had the required testimonials from three officers and three enlisted men as well as reports from review boards of the era. 

Medal of Honor Awarded

On June 2, 2015, nearly a century after his acts of valor, Sergeant William Shemin was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor in a ceremony held in the East Room of the White House. President Barack Obama presented the nation’s highest military decoration to Shemin’s daughters, Elsie Shemin-Roth and Ina Bass, finally correcting a historical oversight rooted in the prejudices of the early 20th century.

Medal of Honor Citation

Sergeant William Shemin distinguished himself by extraordinary acts of heroism at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while serving as a Rifleman with G Company, 2d Battalion, 47th Infantry Regiment, 4th Division, American Expeditionary Forces, in connection with combat operations against an armed enemy on the Vesle River, near Bazoches, France from August 7 to August 9, 1918. Sergeant Shemin, upon three different occasions, left cover and crossed an open space of 150 yards, repeatedly exposing himself to heavy machine-gun and rifle fire, to rescue wounded. After officers and senior noncommissioned officers had become casualties, Sergeant Shemin took command of the platoon and displayed great initiative under fire until wounded on August 9. Sergeant Shemin’s extraordinary heroism and selflessness, above and beyond the call of duty, are in keeping with the highest traditions of the military service and reflect great credit upon himself, with G Company, 2d Battalion, 47th Infantry Regiment, 4th Division, American Expeditionary Forces, and the United States Army.

Amazing Accomplishment

The ceremony served as a powerful conclusion to Elsie’s fifteen-year crusade, ensuring her father’s legacy was officially etched into the highest level of American military history.

Also honored at the same White House ceremony was Henry Johnson, the Harlem Hellfighter who fought valiantly in France during World War I but was also overlooked. (The Shemin family graciously includes recognition of Henry Johnson at events when William Shemin is being honored,)

Among President Barack Obama’s remarks in the East Wing that day were these: “It’s never too late to say thank you.” 

The story of William Shemin remains important in 2025 because it serves as a powerful reminder of historical injustice and the ongoing need for equality and recognition within American society and its institutions.

Alfred Joyce Kilmer (1886-1918) is remembered as a patriot, a family man, a veteran, and a well-known poet. His poetry was so widely-read that when he was killed in World War I, it was front-page news across the nation.

Kilmer, a writer and editor, wrote his poem, “Trees,” in 1913. It was published in Poetry magazine that year. Its simplicity and sentiment became well-loved by the public, and the poem was published in many newspapers across the nation.

Today the memory of Kilmer has faded, but this year (2025) he was selected by the nonprofit, Operation Restore Decency, as a veteran to honor on Veterans Day. (Each year the organization selects a particular veteran to remember to personalize the sacrifice all veterans make in preserving peace and freedom for Americans.)

Kilmer’s Early Life

Alfred Joyce Kilmer was born in 1886 in New Brunswick, New Jersey. His father was a physician and worked as an analytical chemist for Johnson and Johnson Company.

Kilmer was the youngest of four children. He was named for two Episcopal priests at the Episcopal parish in New Brunswick. However, Kilmer disliked the name Alfred, and he comfortably took to being called Joyce.

The children attended Rutgers College Grammar School. Throughout his education, he was particularly drawn to working on school newspapers.  

When he graduated from high school, Kilmer accept a scholarship to Rutgers College. Harry J. Cargas, who wrote a biography of Joyce Kilmer, writes that Kilmer always struggled with math. In college, the Rutgers administration wanted him to repeat a year because of his math grade. His mother was adamant that Kilmer not be held back. She helped him transfer to Columbia University where the math requirement was less onerous at that time.

After graduation from Columbia in 1908, he married his college sweetheart, Aline Murray (1888-1941). They eventually had five children.

First Job

Joyce Kilmer’s first job was teaching Latin at Morristown High School in New Jersey. His dream was to be a writer, so nights and weekends, he wrote and submitted essays, poems, and book reviews to various publications.

In 1910, the Kilmers decided that living in New York City would offer him better career opportunities. They found an apartment on 184^th Street that was large enough to hold the family.

Once settled in New York City, Kilmer applied to several trade publications and landed a job at one of them. He could support his family and gain experience in publishing while still having time to submit articles to other publications.

By 1912, Kilmer was a special writer for The New York Times Review of Books and The New York Times Sunday Magazine. While it was not a staff job, he was in the office so much that editors assigned him a desk.

But the family needed more space at home. I n 1912, he and Aline moved to a house in Mahwah, New Jersey.   That year their daughter Rose was born and shortly after birth she was stricken with infantile paralysis, an illness with no cure at that time.

The Joyces felt helpless and turned to the church for comfort. Joyce Kilmer converted to Catholicism at this time. This would later influence his career as he obtained a strong following among Catholics.

Publication of “Trees”

In August of 1913, Joyce Kilmer’s poem, “Trees,” was published in Poetry magazine. Something about the verse caught the zeitgeist. People loved the simplicity and the sentiment of it. Newspapers purchased the rights to the poem, and it was read by many Americans.  Kilmer was soon invited to lecture across the country, primarily to Catholic audiences.  

The following year a book, Trees and Other Poems, was published. Soon three more poetry collections of Kilmer’s were published. He continued writing as well as traveling on the lecture circuit, though he tried to be home as much as possible because of Rose and the other children.

World War I

World War I, also called the Great War, began in 1914. The war began after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria while he was visiting Serbia. Austria blamed Serbia for the attack.  

On July 28, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, and the tenuous peace between Europe’s great powers quickly collapsed. Countries in Europe were picking sides. Within a week, Russia, Belgium, France, Great Britain and Serbia lined up against Austria-Hungary and Germany. World War I had begun.

The United States resisted entering into a conflict on the other side of the ocean. Then on May 7, 1915, Germany torpedoed the passenger ship, The Lusitania. Almost 1200 passengers were killed, including 128 Americans. Though the news was tragic and unsettling, President Woodrow Wilson obtained a pledge from Germany that no more civilian ships would be attacked.

But the country was changing. Joyce Kilmer was commissioned to write a poem about the sinking of the passenger ship. He anthropomorphizes the Lusitania but it works:

The White Ships and the Red

The pale green waves about her
Were swiftly, strangely dyed,
By the great scarlet stream that flowed
From out her wounded side.
And all her decks were scarlet
And all her shattered crew.
She sank among the white ghost ships
And stained them through and through.
…
“I went not forth to battle,
I carried friendly men,
The children played about my decks,
The women sang — and then —
And then — the sun blushed scarlet
And Heaven hid its face,
The world that God created
Became a shameful place!

This poem is credited with beginning to turn the tide as to whether or not the United States should enter World War I. 

Pledge Forgotten

By 1917, Germany had done away with any pledges to not torpedo other ships in the Atlantic. Soon merchant ships were being hit. In addition, the Zimmermann telegram was discovered. The telegram indicated that Germany and Mexico might work together to undertake war against the U.S. In light of these new events, the American sentiment about the war changed.

On April 6, 1917, the United States declared war on Germany. 

Kilmer Enlists

Only a few days after this declaration, Joyce Kilmer enlisted. As a 31-year-old family man, he was not required to join up, but Kilmer was a patriot and saw military service as an important duty.

Initially, he was part of the New York National Guard. In August the Guard unit was assigned to the 165^th Infantry Regiment (the “Fighting 69^th).  

Kilmer’s basic training was in Camp Mills in Garden City, Long Island. To avoid unnecessary time away from the family, he and Aline rented a home in Larchmont, New York. Aline was pregnant again, and Rose’s health continued to deteriorate. While the travel between Long Island and Larchmont was not easy, Kilmer could still get home now and then. 

Just before he was sent overseas, Rose died. Son Christopher was born shortly after. 

Fighting in France

The “Fighting 69^th” arrived in France and served as part of the 42^nd Infantry Division that became known as the “Rainbow Division.” (It was called the Rainbow Division because it was made up of National Guard units from 26 states.)

In March of 1918, the U.S. troops were under French command near Baccarat, France. They needed to learn about the geography of the area and gain experience in trench warfare. It was a rough beginning.

On March 7, 1918, a German shell caused the collapse of one of the dugouts in the wooded area known as the Rouge Bouquet. In the aftermath, almost two dozen members of the Fighting 69^th died.

Kilmer was aghast at what he witnessed. Within a few days he penned his poem, “Rouge Bouquet.”

In a wood they call the Rouge Bouquet

There is a new-made grave to-day,

Build by never a spade nor pick

Yet covered with earth ten meters thick.

There lie many fighting men,

    Dead in their youthful prime,

Never to laugh nor love again

    Nor taste the Summertime.

For Death came flying through the air

And stopped his flight at the dugout stair,

Touched his prey and left them there,

    Clay to clay.

He hid their bodies stealthily

In the soil of the land they fought to free

    And fled away.

The poem concludes:

From the wood called Rouge Bouquet,

A delicate cloud of bugle notes

    That softly say:

“Farewell!

Farewell!

Comrades true, born anew, peace to you!

And your memory shine like the morning-star.

Brave and dear,

Shield us here.

Farewell!”

The poem was first published in Stars and Stripes, August 16, 1918. (Kilmer did not live to know of its publication.) It is now a tradition to read the poem at funeral services for fallen members of the regiment.

Tragic End for Kilmer

In April 1918, Kilmer was transferred to the military intelligence section of his regiment to work under Major “Wild Bill” Donovan. When Donovan’s adjutant was killed, Kilmer was selected to move up temporarily to aid Donovan. 

By the end of July, the fighting in the Second Battle of the Marne was fierce. Major Donovan needed someone to go on reconnaissance with him for the locations of the German machine gun nests that were wreaking havoc on the regiment. 

On July 30, Kilmer was called upon to accompany Major Donovan as they went out to explore where the Germans were positioned. Kilmer and Donovan left together, but each went a slightly different direction.

Donovan returned to headquarters but no one heard from Kilmer. When it seemed safe, another soldier left the trenches. He soon found Kilmer’s body. He was killed by a single gunshot. Military records place his death on the battlefield near the Ourcq River that fed into the village of Seringes-et-Nesles in northern France. 

Kilmer was buried in a cemetery near where he fell in the Ois-Aisne American Cemetery and Memorial. For his valor, he later was awarded the Croix de Guerre by the French Republic.

In the United States, a cenotaph was erected to his memory on the Kilmer family plot in Elmwood Cemetery in North Brunswick, New Jersey.

Due to Joyce Kilmer’s prominence, a memorial mass was celebrated at St.  Patrick’s Cathedral in New York City on October 14, 1918.  Other honors were to follow over time.

Many Honors Followed

People across the country thought well of Joyce Kilmer. His poetry and his honorable service to the country moved them.  On July 31 1931, a tree was dedicated in Joyce Kilmer’s memory along Literary Walk in Central Park.  The ceremony was held under the auspices of the Catholic Writers Guild, and Reverend Francis B. Duffy, chaplain of the Rainbow Division in which Kilmer Served, spoke at the memorial service.

Also in the early 1930s, the North Carolina Veterans of Foreign Wars unit aspired to establish a place of respite for its members. They finally selected a section of forest about 100 miles west of Asheville, N.C., in the Nantahala National Forest. The beautiful secluded area features old growth where hikers can enjoy poplar, hemlock, red and white oak, basswood, beech and sycamore.  It was officially dedicated in 1936, and today, the 3,800-acre Joyce Kilmer Memorial Forest is now a part of the 17,000-acre Joyce Kilmer-Slickrock Wilderness, adjacent to the Great Smoky Mountains National Park.

Because Joyce Kilmer was so loved, there are still more memorials to him. You can find schools, parks, and even a highway rest stop (in New Jersey) named in memory of Joyce Kilmer.

What Tree Inspired “Trees?”

When people hear or read the poem, “Trees,” they often wonder what tree or trees Joyce Kilmer was inspired by when he wrote his poem.  Residents near Notre Dame and Rutgers, as well as people in Swansea, New Hampshire, and Larchmont, New York, have all considered that their trees might have been the inspiration. 

Alex Michelini, founder of the Joyce Kilmer Society of Mahwah, felt compelled to explore this issue. He and his wife traveled the country, visiting memorials to Kilmer and investigating any place that had archival information related to the poet. Ultimately, Michelini found relevant archival papers about Kilmer at Georgetown University.

Michelini knew that Kilmer always dated the notebooks in which he wrote his poems. When the Georgetown library brought forward a 1913 notebook with “Trees” in it, Michelini knew he found what he needed.

The poem was dated February 2, 1913, a time when the Kilmers had little ones and lived in the house in Mahwah, New Jersey. It became clear that the likely trees in question could be viewed from the upper story windows.  Michelini’s hunch was further supported when he located a letter written by Aline that described how the poem came to be written. Aline verified this story.

Kilmer and Poetry

Much has been written about the worth of Joyce Kilmer’s poetry. Was it any good? Many have made fun of the poems and their rhyming simplicity and common subjects. At Columbia University, there has long been an Alfred Joyce Kilmer Bad Poetry Contest. But is this fair?

Kilmer was born in 1886, at a time when simple poetry was appreciated as both popular entertainment as well as moral instruction. Many churches celebrated poetry, and schools often required students to memorize poems as we a way to learn to read, to focus on concepts, and for students to master the art of oral presentation. The fact that the subject matter in his poems is about simple things makes them all the more accessible.

The lovely aspect of a Kilmer poem was the succinct, if sometimes sentimental, presentation of a difficult theme. Look back at his poem about the tragedy of The Lusitania. By anthropomorphizing the ship, he moves the reader into the scene of the tragedy and explains the innocence of those who were killed. Not many writers can deliver a gut punch in a piece that takes just a couple of minutes to read.

Like all things, the concepts and theories behind what makes good poetry changes over time. After Kilmer, writers like Ezra Pound and T.S. Eliot came forward with free verse on deeper subject matter, and newspapers no longer wanted or needed to publish simple verse.

But for his time, Joyce Kilmer was a hero. He helped people grapple with issues ranging from the simple to the complex. And when the U.S. entered the war, Kilmer, the patriot and family man, was right there to do his duty. 

****

2025

Joyce Kilmer was brought to my attention this autumn (2025) when LTC (retired) Debjeet Sarkar, M.D., and his organization, Operation Restore Decency publicized their Veterans Day event in Central Park.

Sarkar arranged for the Kilmer plaque at the foot of the tree along Literary Walk in Central Park to be refinished. He planned to hold a ceremony to rededicate it in Kilmer’s memory. Alex Michelini, founder of the Joyce Kilmer Society spoke about Kilmer’s life. Navy Veteran Stephen DeLuca, SJD, representing Taps for Veterans, played the Star Spangled Banner and Taps.  

It was a moving and truly special way to recognize Veterans Day with other like-minded people.

No homing pigeon ever enlisted in any war, but they were used by the military on both sides of the conflicts during World Wars I and II.

Once in place, they did their jobs well and reliably, and in the process, they saved thousands of human lives. Many of the birds were killed on the battlefields.

Any soldier who participated in war deserves recognition, and the same is true for homing pigeons. That said, there were several remarkable birds who stand out for special recognition.

Cher Ami: Best Known

Cher Ami (“Dear Friend”) is the best known of the heroic homing pigeons. He was a black feather cock whose story has been told in articles and books because of the dozens of vital messages he carried during key battles.

He was born in France and was donated to the U.S. Signal Corps. His first assignment was on the front lines, carrying at least a dozen key messages. However, his fame endures for saving what is known as the “Lost Battalion.”

This occurrence took place during the massive Hundred Day Offensive near the Meuse-Argonne.  The 77^th Division consisted of nine different companies of the AEF and they were fighting in the Argonne Forest.

Their commander, Major Charles W. Whittlesey of the 308^th Infantry Regiment, led more than 500 men in an attack that finally broke through the German line.

The commander thought the unit was well protected from behind, but during the night, the enemy surrounded them. At dawn, Major Whittlesey realized they were trapped. They were running low on food and ammunition, and the other Allies did not know where they were.

Whittesley knew his options were few. Several message-runners had been killed trying to carry out information on foot. The officers turned to the homing pigeons they had with them. The first message sent was: “Many wounded. We cannot evacuate.”

The second message read: “Men are suffering. Can support be sent?”

There was no response from the command center. Whittesley and his men decided to hold firm for as long as they could, despite their dire situation.

For five days and nights, they withstood German gunfire and grenades.

By this time, Allied Forces had a better understanding of where the fighting was taking place. They attempted to direct artillery onto the German positions to help save the battalion, but they had no way to pinpoint where their own men were. Before long, they unknowingly started shelling Major Whittlesey and his men.

Last Pigeon Available

Major Whittlesey had only one more homing pigeon—Cher Ami. Though notes were usually released with two birds, Whittlesey did not have that option and had to rely on Cher Ami. He wrote a note saying:

“We are along the road paralell [sic] 276.4. Our artillery is dropping barrage directly on us. For heaven’s sake stop it.”    (October 4, 1918)

The note was inserted into the tube on Cher Ami’s leg, and the bird was released. The men saw that Cher Ami was hit almost immediately, but the bird fluttered back up after initially descending. They hoped against hope that he was on his way. 

Shortly, the assault by the American stopped. Cher Ami must have arrived. The Allies redirected their fire. Within five more days, the Germans finally retreated north.

When the Lost Battalion appeared, there were only 194 men, but each of them was incredibly grateful to Cher Ami.

As for Cher Ami, his right leg was shot off and he was blinded in the left eye. Medics immediately attended to the shot he suffered through his breast, and his life was saved.

He was awarded the famous French Croix de Guerre with an Oak Leaf Cluster for his heroic service.

General John J. Pershing, commander of the American Expedition Force noted: “There isn’t anything the United States can do that is too much for this bird.” Pershing ordered Cher Ami to be sent to the United States after the war. He lived in retirement at Fort Monmouth until his death in June of 1919.

Homing Pigeon Named President Wilson

The pigeon known as President Wilson served in World War I. He was born in France, and his first assignment was with the newly formed Tank Corps.

The tanks with which he served were the most forward-serving tanks (326 and 327) under Col. George S. Patton in the St. Mihiel Offensive. President Wilson carried with him numerous messages about the locations of enemy machine gun nests.

He was soon moved to an infantry unit that was fighting in the Meuse-Argonne offensive. On October 5, 1918, his unit came under heavy attack. They needed artillery support. There were no open lines of communication, so President Wilson was dispatched to notify headquarters. Enemy soldiers saw him fly out, and he was immediately fired upon.

His service record notes that “this game little soldier came through fire and fog” though one of his legs was shot off and his breast was pierced by a bullet. But he flew 25 miles to the command post in 25 minutes, and artillery support was launched, shielding Allied troops from German fire and saving thousands of American troops.

Surviving his wounds, President Wilson retired to the U.S. Army Signal Corps Breeding and Training Center in Fort Monmouth, new Jersey. He lived until 1929, at which point he was mounted and put on display at Fort Monmouth.

Eventually he was donated to the Smithsonian. In 2008, the Smithsonian returned him to the U.S. Army, and he is now thought to be on exhibit at the Pentagon, just outside the office of the Chief of Staff of the Army.

G.I. Joe: Hero from World War II

G.I. Joe was a pigeon born in March of 1943 in Algiers, North Africa. Because he was to be part of the U.S. Pigeon Service, he was taken to Fort Monmouth, New Jersey. Pigeon handlers were experimenting with two-way homing pigeons. Joe was to be part of this training.

Homing pigeons are known for their strong one-way returns–reliably flying from almost anywhere to their home loft. Though the military used them extensively in both World Wars I and II, pigeon handlers were hoping that two-way flights could be perfected, making the pigeons more valuable.  

As it happened, Joe was called into service before that training was completed. He was taken to Italy where the Allies were fighting.  His heroic moment required a single one-way flight which saved the citizens in the village of Calvi Vecchia in southern Italy.  

Calvi Vecchia had been taken over by the Germans but in October 1943, the Allies, led by the 169^th London Infantry Brigade, won back the village. They knew a bombing raid was planned, so they needed to alert headquarters that the village was now in Allied hands.

Pigeon handlers took G.I. Joe and wrote out a message. The pigeon was soon off, flying 20 miles in 20 minutes.

G.I. Joe’s arrival in time to halt the planes and over 100 soldiers and the entire citizenry were saved.

For his efforts, G.I. Joe was awarded the Dickin Medal for gallantry at the Tower of London. His citation reads “the most outstanding flight made by a United States Army homing pigeon in World War II.” 

After World War II, Joe returned to Fort Monmouth, New Jersey, where he lived at the US Army’s Churchill Loft.  He died at the age of 18 (1961) at the Detroit Zoological Gardens. He is now mounted and on display at the U.S. Army Heritage and Education Center in Carlisle, Pennsylvania.

Note: The Dicken Medal is a bronze medal awarded by the People’s Dispensary for Sick Animals (PDSA) to recognize animals for bravery and devotion to duty in war or conflict. The award is generally given to animals of the United Kingdom.

For a comprehensive story about homing pigeons used during World War I and World War II, click here.

Homing pigeons saved thousands of lives during both World Wars.  Despite amazing technological progress in warfare during the early 20^th century, there were times when the military needed to rely on other methods of communication. An estimated 500,000 homing pigeons were used in the first World War. It was an old “technology” for new warfare.

Sometimes the front line moved forward faster than the Signal Corps could string new wiring for telephones or telegraphs. At other points lines were severed, cutting off communication.  Messengers on foot, on horseback or traveling by motorcycle were open targets and were frequently injured or killed.

Homing pigeons were fast and reliable. They seemed to appear out of nowhere, and that helped them get through. Pigeons could also work despite bombardments, dust, smoke, fog, and bad weather.  But they were not totally trouble-free. The military needed soldiers who understood pigeon care and could assure that the pigeons were in good health for arduous flights through dangerous territory. The birds were sometime needed to fly 300-600 miles.

The key to pigeon use was getting them where they needed to be. Homing pigeons are a one-way communication system. The birds can be dropped off in many locations, but they only fly one direction—-home. That said, birds can imprint on a pigeon loft different from the one where it was born. The military tried to breed pigeons near where they would be needed, but often, they had to teach the pigeons to return to a new home.

Where Were Pigeons Used?

Pigeons served in every military branch. Tanks dispatched pigeons to relay locations of hidden machine gun nests. Pilots launched the birds midair to quickly transmit reconnaissance information. Ships and sea planes that traveled relatively close to shore carried pigeons. If there were radio failures or emergencies, the pigeons were released so the crews could be found.

During World War I, some reconnaissance was conducted via hot air balloon. Rather than trying to string a telegraph wire up to a balloon, it was easy and efficient to take pigeons. When a message needed to be sent, it was attached to the pigeon and the bird was released. After leaving the balloon, pigeons generally circled once to get oriented and then flew directly for its loft.

How the Pigeon Story Began

Homing pigeons have been used throughout world history. As far back as the Greeks, pigeons were used to carry messages as well as for the sport of pigeon racing.

Pigeon use expanded as the Ottoman Empire grew and stretched across vast territory during the 14^th century.  Pigeon fanciers developed a “pigeon relay.”

Towers were built at intervals of about every 30-40 miles with pigeon lofts atop each tower. Sentinels were on continuous watch. When a pigeon arrived, the message was taken off the bird and transferred to another bird to carry the message on the next leg of the flight. This process was repeated across the territory.

Reuters News Service

Even with the telegraph available, Reuters News Service, a prominent news agency, opted to use pigeons for transmitting the latest news and stock prices between Germany and Belgium in 1850. They determined that birds were faster than the railway and more reliable than the newly developed telegraph. Reuters maintained at least 45 working pigeons in the company lofts.

Siege of Paris

At few times in history were pigeons more important than in the Siege of Paris (September 1870-January 1871).  Napoleon was under the impression that the French Army was more powerful than the Prussian military. When he declared war on Prussia in July of 1870, he was quickly surprised.

The Prussian Army was unified and well-trained, and they quickly moved forward to surround Paris. They cut telegraph lines and closed all paths into and out of the city.

Parisians soon saw that the only way to communicate was via homing pigeon. They needed to get their pigeons out of Paris so that the French military could send back news to those under siege.

Small hot air balloons with baskets containing 2-3 pigeons were employed to send out pigeons and information. Those on the outside retrieved the pigeons and sent them back with messages.

Though the Parisians could receive news, the Prussians effectively blocked the food supply. The French eventually had no choice but to surrender. The people were starving.

The Source of Birds in World War I

The homing pigeon is a feral pigeon, descended from the Rock Dove (Columba livia). The Rock Dove weighs about 1 pound, and they are powerful fliers. These birds can fly 12-15 hours per day, covering 500-700 miles. The average speed of the motivated flier can range from 30-60 mph. In a sprint, some homing pigeons have been timed traveling 90 mph.

The wild Rock Dove has an inherent homing instinct, which is the basis for the abilities of its descendants. (City pigeons are also feral pigeons but the homing instinct has not been reinforced by breeding.)

In Europe in the late 19^th and early 20^th century, pigeon racing using homing pigeons was a popular hobby. Once the military realized they might need fliers, they contacted hobbyists. Belgian citizens were particularly involved in the sport, so they quickly began working with the military to build needed lofts for the birds and to increase breeding.

How Do Pigeons Navigate?

For birds that are bred for racing or message-carrying, scientists have developed several theories for the “instinct of orientation.” They recognize that these birds have an instinctive ability to know where to go, but scientists note that they also have heightened perception of atmospheric pressure as well as excellent sight. Pigeons seem to see in color and can focus telescopically.

The more recent understanding of homing pigeons comes from zoologist William T. Keeton (1933-1980). He worked with pigeons over a period of years and discovered that they have tiny magnetic particles in their beaks. Their sense of the earth’s magnetic field tells them where they are and shows them where they need to be.

Scientists say that as pigeons get closer to home, they switch from “compass” navigation to visual navigation. They have excellent memories.  Since their vision is good, they can use visual cues. They sometimes take a slightly longer route because it is a path that is familiar to them. 

The United States Makes Pigeon Preparation

One of the contributions the U.S. made even before they entered the war was commissioning mobile pigeon lofts for the Allies. They contacted D.M. Sechler Carriage Company in Ohio, to build mobile pigeon lofts that could be shipped overseas.  The intent was to have lofts that could be moved along with the fighting.

Next, the U.S. Signal Corps needed to find men who could work with pigeons. The ideal candidates were American pigeon racers. The sport was not as poplar as in Europe, but there were pigeon clubs in the U.S.

The need for birds was so great that the military purchased birds from American breeders, but they knew they needed to establish breeding lofts in Europe so that the birds would acclimate more quickly.

The first U.S. Pigeon Service eventually included 50 mobile lofts, nine officers, 324 soldiers, and 6000 pigeons.

How Are the Birds Trained?

The process of training homing pigeons is consistent. Young birds are given time to acclimate to the pigeon loft that will be their home base. Once they are suitably settled, they are sent out for short flights. Most pigeon handlers have whistles or calls they can use to help educate the birds as to how to come home.

As the birds become familiar with the sights, sounds and atmosphere of their area, the pigeon handlers take the birds farther and farther away. They may start with a release that is just two miles away. Over time the distance is extended until the birds are sufficiently trained.  

Occasionally birds become disoriented or pause for a time, but unless they are killed, almost all birds find their way home.

Traveling by Basket

Homing pigeons are accustomed to traveling by basket, so the military got to work at creating ways to carry them into the field.  Small baskets were appropriate for many situations (tanks and ships, for example), but soldiers in the infantry and bicycle messengers were given backpacks fitted with bird  baskets.

Because dogs were often part of message systems, special harnesses were crafted. Two baskets were attached firmly to each side of the harness. When seen from afar, the dogs appeared to have wings. These dogs often needed canine gas masks to get through war zones. Once outfitted with the mask and the baskets, the dogs could have been mistaken for flying monsters as they dashed through a battlefield.

Pigeons traveling with spies were the only birds that didn’t need baskets. These birds were used to being tucked under a coat or inside clothing.  When the spy carrying the pigeon was ready to send a message, he wrote the note, inserted it into the pigeon’s leg tube and released their bird.

Pigeon handlers were taught not to coop birds up for too long. If the bird was enclosed for up to 48 hours, they were not in good shape for flight.

Soldiers were also told not to feed the birds too close to flight time. They needed to be hungry enough to go home right away but not so hungry that they stopped for a snack.

Bird Threats and Enemies

Enemy armies were well aware of how important the pigeons were. If pigeons were in active use, the military knew that there were would be enemy gunfire. Because snipers on both sides of any fight were quite good at what they did, two pigeons were always sent carrying the same message. If one pigeon was killed, the other bird might escape with the information. 

In addition to gunfire, birds of prey were a danger. Some were birds that were simply out in the wild, but opposing military also brought in hawks and Peregrine falcons as part of the defense arsenal.

But there was a catch. Birds of prey were clueless when it came to identifying pigeon allegiances. The German army also used homing pigeons, so if their own birds were being sent out with messages, they had to hold off on releasing the birds of prey.

How the Messages Were Carried

Messenger dogs had collars that could hold messages, but pigeons were free of encumbrance. While there were some variations, most messages were carried in small aluminum tubes attached to a bird’s leg. The tube was closed at both ends to keep rain or water from seeping in.

Occasionally messages were tied to a tail feather, but these messages were more vulnerable to damage than those attached to a leg.  

Messages ranged from short, handwritten notes to multiple messages that were photographed and reduced in size so that a number of missives could be sent. It was not uncommon for a pigeon tube to hold 15 feet of film negatives. Occasionally, these could be viewed in the field using a magic lantern. Other times the film needed to be developed and sent on.

The soldiers responsible for sending messages carried pigeons and supplies as well as protective cloths to cover the pigeon baskets in case of gas attack. Every pigeon unit had message books with carbons so that copies could be made.

In the military, lofts where message-carrying pigeons returned were rigged with a bell system. When the bird arrived, the soldiers in charge were notified by the tinkling of the bell.

A Well-Known Dog and Pigeon Story

Perhaps one of the best-known stories of message-carrying during World War I involved a messenger dog as well as two pigeons.

In 1916, the ancient city of Verdun was under attack. Its location on the Meuse River was at a cross-roads where armies could travel north and south as well as east and west. The Germans felt if they could destroy Verdun they would effectively wipe out French resistance.

Fighting had gone on for almost 10 months, but the Germans seemed to be closing in. They had taken position on a ridge overlooking Verdun and were preparing for a final attack.

At French headquarters, officers wanted to send word that they were sending more military units. They hoped that there would be a way to get word from Verdun as to what they might expect.

Seventeen Messengers Killed

Seventeen soldiers had been killed carrying messages, so the French military turned to Satan, a messenger dog in their K-9 unit. One of Satan’s handlers was trapped in Verdun. If they turned Satan loose, he would head as directly as possible for his handler. A message was inserted in the tube on Satan’s collar, and he was outfitted with a harness carrying two pigeon baskets. He also wore a gas mask.

Satan was released, and he headed off on a zig-zag pattern as he had been trained to do to confuse snipers. There was underbrush on the battlefield for part of his run. As he neared Verdun, he had to cross an open field. A German sniper fired and hit him. Satan went down, then staggered up again. The men called to him. Finally, French soldiers were close enough to dash out to carry him in.

The message on his collar was received with relief, and the commander quickly wrote a return message. The pigeons in Satan’s baskets were taken out. Messages were attached, and the birds were released.

As they feared, one bird was shot immediately. The other pigeon fluttered at first, but ultimately rose into the sky, taking with him the hopes of the citizens.

 One hour later, the French successfully targeted and brought down the Germans on the ridge. At last Verdun was free.

After the War, What About the Pigeons?

After World War I, there was disagreement as to what to do with the pigeons. It was a difficult question, as there were thousands of pigeons that had been part of the pigeon brigade. Many thought that they should be left in Europe, but General Pershing’s Signal Officer Colonel Edgar Russel wanted to bring them home. Russel knew the pigeons told an important story.

Ultimately, the Signal Corps selected 32 pigeons deemed as heroes, 10 captured German pigeons, and 132 birds that were ideal for breeding.

The rest of the pigeons were available to be purchased at auction. Soldiers could bid on their particular favorites. Others would be given to French and British military.

Pigeons in World War II

By World War II, pigeons were still needed but in fewer numbers.

One of the primary needs for the pigeons was for information gathering.   Emergency communication needs still occurred but this was a day before drones, and the military needed help with reconnaissance.

When the United States put out a call for pigeons in January of 1942, they received enthusiastic support. The American Racing Pigeon Union and the International Federation of American Homing Pigeon Fanciers both stepped forward to help. Many valuable birds were donated. One shipment from New York City consisted of 52,000 birds. Pigeon breeding stations were also set up in Georgia, Missouri, New Jersey, and Texas.

Pigeon Cameras

Pigeon cameras were invented between the two wars, permitting pigeons to be the forerunners of drones. The birds could fly behind enemy lines and come home with a photographic record of what was happening.

Maidenform factories were already making parachutes for the war. They were soon commissioned to make camera-carrying vests. The vests were made of netting and were form-fitting for the birds, leaving wings, head, and feet all available for flying.

From April 1941-September 1944, the British used pigeons to track what was happening on the ground behind enemy lines. Pigeons were placed in containers with parachutes attached. Planes could drop them behind enemy lines. The  parachutes gave the birds a softer landing.

Resistance fighters as well as regular citizens picked up the birds, and sent back information. The Allies received everything from vital intelligence on Nazi plans to daily reality of life under Nazi regime.

D-Day News Reports

Author Cornelius Ryan wrote that correspondents on Juno Beach during WWII had no communication method until Ronald Clark of the UPI wire service came ashore with two baskets of carrier pigeons. The correspondents wrote their stories, inserted them into the aluminum capsules, and released the birds.

To read about some of the pigeons who were war heroes, click on Cher Ami and Other Heroes.

Use During Peacetime

Some homing pigeons were used long after the war.

One hospital in Granville, France, used pigeons to send blood samples inland to a test lab in Avranches. The drive time was about 30 minutes, and pigeons could deliver the samples in 25 minutes. They maintained this system until the pigeon keeper died in 1992.

World War I marked a turning point in warfare, ushering in an era of large-scale mechanization. Trains, trucks, tanks, cars, and motorcycles were deployed for the war, yet animals remained indispensable.

Before the United States entered the war, France and Britain were importing horses, mules, and donkeys from the U.S. But buying and importing animals was both difficult and expensive. Many of the animals became ill during transatlantic transit.

When the United States entered the war, the problems were compounded. Even more animals would be needed. Every effort was made by the military to keep the animals that were already in Europe alive, healthy and in service.

Why Animals Instead of Trucks?

Trench warfare predominated during World War I, and this broke up the terrain. Miles and miles of fortified trenches extended from the English Channel through Belgium, Luxembourg, and northwestern France to Switzerland. 

For soldiers and equipment, traveling through these areas was difficult at best. Many of the roads were poorly maintained, and poor weather was inevitable. Mud from rain slowed travel. As the heavily-laden trucks traversed the roads and the dirt byways, their narrow, solid-rubber tires gouged deep ruts. The heavier the equipment, the more damage that was done to the roads.

The military soon found that animals could navigate the rough roads and difficult terrain better than mechanized vehicles. Mules, oxen, horses, and donkeys were brought in to help move equipment around. Even medium-to-large dogs were used to pull small supply carts or one-man ambulances.

Cavalry

Up until World War I, cavalry was an important part of wartime fighting. Military leaders initially envisioned cavalry charges to break enemy lines during this war, but they quickly saw this was no longer practical. Cavalry charging into enemy lines was now met with machine gun fire—not fear. The enemy also used barbed wire to protect fortifications. Cavalry riders didn’t always see the almost invisible sharp barricade. If horses slammed into the wire, it could injure both horse and rider.

However, cavalry still had a place during this war. The mounted soldiers continued to be used as the “eyes and ears” of the military. The riders made reconnaissance trips to new areas and were often used to guard a regiment’s rear flanks.

Some infantry used cavalry horses to speed their travel. Soldiers could ride into an area for battle. Then then dismounted and left their horses in the rear as the men moved forward to fight.

All Animals

Since mechanized equipment was the priority for this war, quartermasters needed to bring in drivers, mechanics, extra vehicle parts, and fuel for tanks, trucks, and cars powering the war.

But the needs of the animals had to be accommodated as well. Animal handlers, veterinarians, blacksmiths, and of course, food were all required.

Hadn’t Animals Always Been Important?

The animal supply divisions of the military were known as “Remount Depots.” (If a soldier lost his horse, he needed a “remount.”) Since the mid-19^th century, the Remount Depots were to purchase horses and mules and maintain a food supply for these animals. They were also supposed to train the animals for the work they were purchased to do.

After the Civil War, the U.S. military knew that they ought to have a formalized system for acquiring and maintaining animals for war. But once the urgency of a particular war ended, the military brass was all too human. They let plans slide. Because the American military never expected to face a big demand for military animals, they were caught flat-footed when the war in Europe began in 1914.

Bringing Animals From Overseas

Even before the U.S. entered the war, the country helped their allies find horses and mules. From 1914-1916, The United States sold and shipped over 1.5 million horses and mules to both Great Britain and France.

There was no ready supply of military grade horses. The search for horses during the war was constant. A search through local newspapers of the era reveals advertisements and news articles encouraging people to sell or turn their horses in. 

One ad in a Missouri newspaper was headlined: “US War Horses Wanted.” A man named Ray Moran placed print advertisements, specifying that he wanted as many war horses as he could get. The ad listed dates when he would be in different towns in Missouri to purchase animals. The ad ends with: “Want All Your Good Mules.”

After the Civil War, the U.S. military knew that they ought to have a formalized system for acquiring and maintaining animals for war. But once the urgency of a particular war ended, the military brass was all too human. They let plans slide. Because the American military never expected to face a big demand for military animals, they were caught flat-footed when the war in Europe began in 1914.

Transport

The horses were transported from the U.S. via transatlantic freighters. Reports were that 50 ships left the country every month. Care of the animals on their way to the eastern seaboard was haphazard. There were few animal handlers around to help with transporting the horses and mules. Many died of disease before even boarding a ship. 

Sabotage was also a concern. Even before the U.S. entered the war, there was fear that foreign actors would come to the country to poison or infect the animals being sent overseas.

What About the Cavalry?

Cavalries were generally built of well-bred horses that excelled at speed, endurance, and agility. Relatively calm, saddle-broken horses were a must. As the war continued, carefully bred animals weren’t always possible or necessary.

One newspaper reporter wrote: “The little western pony may not come up to cavalry standards but he is a good little Ford and will get you there and be up and about next morning. If cactus is the only food, he will take it and smile and go on his way, leaving the regulation Packard [the thoroughbred] waiting for the oats to catch up.”  (The Idaho Statesman, June 21, 1916.)

Britain’s Blueprint

Britain entered the war in 1914—two years before the United States. They established systems for animal care and management that other countries emulated.

Military units with many animals had a member of the Royal Veterinary Corps with them. Others were given leaflets about how soldiers could care for an injured animal until it could be delivered to a veterinary field hospital.

When an animal was first injured, the veterinarian worked to stabilize the animal’s condition. The doctors generally had access to “horse ambulances.” These were specifically-built conveyances that could transport an injured horse but also serve as a well-supplied first aid station so that help could be administered quickly.

Field hospitals were built four miles behind the front lines and about 8 miles apart. If the animal could be stabilized, the horse would travel by horse ambulance (or on its own power) to the field hospital.

At the field hospital, there were fully-equipped surgical rooms. The buildings were surrounded by paddocks and barns for the animals.

With these facilities, the British were able to return to the field about 80 percent of the wounded animals. This was a major accomplishment because the more animals they could send back to the battlefield, the fewer they had to import.

Red Star Animal Relief

In 1916, U.S. Secretary of War Newton Baker contacted the president of the American Humane Association, Dr. William O. Stillman. Baker witnessed the ongoing difficulties trying to send healthy horses to Europe. He thought the Humane Society could help.

Stillman agreed. In 1916, he started the American Red Star Animal Relief Program in Albany, New York, to provide aid for the war animals. (It was an off-shoot of the international Red Star Animal Relief organization begun in Switzerland.)   

The first ad used to promote the cause was gut-wrenching. The illustration was by Fortunino Matania. It showed a British artilleryman kneeling by his fallen horse, offering comfort for the animal’s dying moments.  The poster reads “Help the Horse to Save the Soldier.”

To raise funds for food and medical supplies for the animals, Dr. Stillman and his staff recruited philanthropists all over the country.  By war’s end, there were 125 Red Star chapters established through the United States.

In addition to fundraising and a constant search for animals, the Red Star Animal Relief also looked for veterinary surgeons, stable hands, and blacksmiths to be sent overseas.

Other Services

The Red Star Relief knew they couldn’t answer all needs, so they also created literature that was distributed to soldiers who were stationed in any unit with animals.

The literature provided information on how to provide first aid under battlefield conditions. The more animals they could rehabilitate, the fewer they would have to bring to Europe from the United States.

Kindness to Animals

With the Humane Association involved, there were people who noticed little things that were big things to an animal. Much of the firewood used at the Front was timber salvaged from ruined buildings. Nails would have been a considerable problem. A poster noted that nails needed to be removed before dragging or bringing wood across the terrain.
One newspaper featured a photograph of a sergeant, wrapped in his greatcoat against the cold. He was reading a notice nailed to a tree:

“Kindness to animals. 500 horses lamed weekly by nails dropped on roads and horse lines by cookers carrying firewood with nails left in. Please remove nails.”

U.S. Enters War

A year after the Red Star Animal Relief was created, the United States entered the war. They would need an estimated 750,000 horses and mules to build the cavalry, artillery, and transportation units that would be needed overseas. 

The Remount Service was relatively small when the US entered the war, but the Quartermaster Corps soon created 33 additional remount depot stations to help with the mobilization. 

The Red Star chapters found many ways to raise money. Because they were soliciting a moneyed set of people, they held dog shows and horse shows that were well-attended and successful. At the depot at Linda Vista, California, they raised enough money for two horse ambulances.

Nationwide, Red Star Relief paid for buildings to be erected in the U.S. and overseas; medical supplies; and eleven motor vet ambulances, seven other ambulances. Four automobiles and 10 motor cycles  (7 with side cars) were furnished for the use of vets to visit sick animals.

Debt to the Animals

After the war ended, the military acknowledged the great debt owed to animals for their efforts. On October 15, 1921,a tablet was given permanent placement at the War and Navy Department building in Washington, D.C. Mrs. Warren Harding attended the ceremony.

The inscription reads:  This tablet commemorates the service and sufferings of the 243,135 mules and horses employed by the American Expeditionary Forces overseas during the Great World War, which terminated November 11, 1918, and which resulted in the death of 68,682 of those animals. What they suffered is beyond words to describe. A fitting tribute to their important services has been given by the commander-in-chief of the American Expeditionary Forces, General John J. Pershing, who has written: “The army horses and mules proved of inestimable value in prosecuting the war to a successful conclusion. They were found in all the theaters of preparation and operation doing their silent but faithful work without the faculty for hoping for any reward or compensation.”

Lest We Forget

The need for animals can be outlined in facts and numbers, but this does not fully explain their value. Animals provide comfort for those who work with and cared for them.

Even in World War I, the bond between man and animal continued. An article that first appeared in a British magazine, The Claremont Mission, summed this up succinctly, and it was reprinted in The Kansas City Star (February 26, 1916):

 “After the fierce fighting at Loos, it was noticed that there was a horse standing between the firing lines. For two days he remained there. Then some of our (British) men crawled out and found that he was standing by the dead body of his rider and would not leave the spot.  The horse itself was unharmed. Later on, some of our men very bravely arranged to get out to the horse again, blindfolded him, and brought him back behind our lines. By no other means could the faithful beast be persuaded to leave its dead master.” 

The Red Star Animal Relief Today

As for the Red Star Animal Relief, the organization continues to serve as an integral component of the American Humane Society’s animal rescue team. They are organized to respond to virtually every major disaster relief effort including earthquakes, hurricanes, and local wildfires and floods.

The Red Ball Express was a desperately needed World War II truck transport system that came about six weeks after D-Day.

By late July of 1944, the Allies were progressing farther and faster than expected after the June 6 surprise landing on the beaches of Normandy. The military was struggling to keep the front lines supplied. 

The creation of a truck convoy system would provide a way to get ammunition, gas, and supplies to the men where it was needed. The unit was named the “Red Ball Express” after a railroad term. To “red ball” a train, or supplies on a train, was to designate it for express delivery. (The unit later took on a French motto: “tout de suite,” meaning immediately.)

During World War II, the military was still segregated. Few Blacks were in combat units; most were placed in service positions or the General Service Corps. This was the logical place for the Motor Corps to pull drivers. The men in combat needed to keep pushing forward, and with General Services providing the drivers, 75 percent of the men in the Red Ball Express were Black.

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Before the Red Ball Express: Preparing for D-Day

For weeks in advance of D-Day, the Allied planes bombed the railroads between Paris and the ports of western France. Allied leaders knew that if the beach invasions were to succeed, they needed to prevent the German armies from obtaining fresh supplies via the French railroads the Germans then controlled.

Destroying the railroads was vital, but after the invasion, it became problematic.  The Allies could not use trains to move their own men and supplies eastward.

For the first six weeks after D-Day, the Allies could not break out of a confined area along the coast of France. In early July 1944, the area under Allied command was about 50 miles wide and 20 miles deep, and they temporarily were locked in.

Operation Cobra

Lieutenant General Omar Bradley put Operation Cobra in place on July 25. While the British and Canadian military distracted the Germans with fighting around Caen, Bradley’s First Army began with carpet bombing followed by an infantry push into Brittany. This began to open a corridor into central France.

After an initially slow start, the U.S. military soon had the Germans on the run. The Allies were soon covering almost 80 miles a week. But with the destruction of the railroads, the supplies couldn’t keep up with the men.

Needed New System

To address the supply problem, the commanders pulled together a brainstorming session. The meeting lasted only a few hours, but it gave the Allies a workable plan. They would commandeer as many trucks as they could and use them to meet the incoming ships.  Soldiers, supplies, and equipment would be loaded onto the trucks. The vehicles would then drive hard to the front to deliver goods and gasoline to the military as the troops pushed east toward occupied Paris.

Getting the Trucks

General Motors, Dodge, and Ford had all been manufacturing trucks for the war effort. At this point, the Allies had a mixture of 2.5-ton cargo trucks, 5-ton cargo trucks, and 10-ton semitrailers.

The Motor Transport Brigade requisitioned trucks from all over the European Theater.  The larger semi-trailers were preferred, because the trailers could be left behind for unloading. The cabs of the trucks could turn around and drive back for more supplies.

However, the more readily available truck was what was known as the “Jimmy.”  It was a 2.5 ton, 6×6 truck that could travel off-road if necessary. (The trucks acquired their name as a phonetic shorthand for the GMC truck.) The G 508—the all-purpose Jimmy–became one of the favorites of World War II. (Many Americans still collect them.)

Standardized Design

The Jimmies were built in large numbers using a standardized design. When one truck broke down, parts could be taken from another truck or from a general supply station and used to fix the truck that needed to get underway.

Initially, the trucks were designed with a closed cab, but as more trucks were needed, the design morphed into an open cab covered with canvas. These were faster to build and easier to ship. Some of the trucks featured flat beds, others were closed, and still others were built to carry all-important gasoline in jerricans to the front.

Germany kept updating and producing more modern trucks, but it was a mistake. As their trucks broke down, the Germans had difficulty finding parts. As a result of their slower manufacturing process and difficulty with repairs, they still relied on horses and wagons for most supply deliveries—a slow process indeed.

Assigning Drivers

With the Allies on the move, all the men in combat units were needed for forward movement. Drivers came from any unit that had men not fully engaged and from the General Service Corps, which was formed in February of 1942. Many of the Black soldiers who joined the military were placed in the General Services unit. This put them in place to become Red Ball Express drivers.

 For the solders, no truck-driving experience was necessary, and men were given only a few hours of instruction on how to operate what was actually a complicated machine. The trucks had ten different gears, and the four rear dual tires were powered by two drive shafts. The dual drive shafts were helpful driving through mud or up a hill, but it required double use of the clutch. This was counter-intuitive for most drivers, and it resulted in a lot of first-timers stripping the gears.

Drivers were given helmets and rifles, but both the rifles and the helmets generally stayed on the floor of the trucks. It was unusual to see a helmet-clad driver, and even if fired upon, the men were too busy driving or loading and unloading to hold on to their rifles.

Delivering Trucks to Europe

In August of 1944 when the Allies were working to implement the plan, they needed more trucks than the numbers available in the European Theater. The Allies had not yet captured any ports. The only way to bring the trucks ashore was using the original landing beaches where Higgins boats delivered the military for the initial invasion.

Prolonged water exposure to truck engines was not going to be good for the trucks, so each vehicle had to be waterproofed. This involved packing spark plugs, distributors, and the electrical system connections with a putty-like substance, well described in The Road to Victory by David P. Colley.

The air cleaner was replaced with a flexible hose attached to the carburetor and exiting the engine compartment so that it could be fastened to the windshield.  Hosing also was attached to the exhaust pipe and extended up the side of the truck to a point well above any water line.

Once the trucks were delivered, the putty and extra hoses all needed to be removed so that the trucks could function again.

The Red Ball Express Route

Roads in France were narrower than American roadways, and the bombing that had been ongoing had been very hard on the surfaces. Because of this, Brigadier General Ewart G. Plank created safeguards. There was no time to repair the roads, so the Brigadier General’s solution was to select the best roads for going and coming and establish a loop system.

Trucks left the coast, traveling on one route. After arriving and delivering the supplies to the Chartres-La Loupe-Dreux triangle, they returned by another road. The roundtrip travel was generally 54 hours.

These roads were to be fully dedicated to the Red Ball Express. If other military or civilian vehicles got into the roads, it was a guaranteed traffic jam. 

Intended Safeguards for Travel

The plan was for military police to be stationed at any major crossroads and at any place where there might be a confusing turn. Trucks were to drive 25 miles per hour at 60-yard intervals. 

The trucks rumbled along day and night, and the specter of night travel was something many commented on. When the trucks traveled at night, they needed some lighting to see where they were going, but they needed the convoys to remain as hidden as possible.

On the front (usually toward the side), slits of white lights provided some guidance for the driver. These lights were the size of a small headlight but hooded by a tin plate. In the rear, the tail lights were red slits and were often referred to as “cat eyes.” They were designed to be seen by the trucks following them in the convoy.

Before Cell Phones

Communication then was not what exists today. However, Colonel John B. Medaris, an American ordnance officer for the First Army, set up a radio network system while the First Army was in England.

As the military units made their way to Europe, this communication system provided a means for the men on the ground to report what they needed to the supply officers. The officers in charge of the convoys then distributed the  supplies and got the trucks running.

Traveling by Convoy

The initial plan was for trucks to travel by convoy, but the loading of each truck took a long time. Soon the drivers simply left on their own as soon as their truck was loaded. 

When the Red Ball Express first began, the military police had not yet been informed of the dedicated routes the trucks were to follow nor had maps been created.  The early drivers were at the mercy of townspeople and military who could at least point them toward “the front.”

However, over time, the men, the military police, and the towns they drove through came to an understanding of where the trucks were to go, and the pace became faster and faster.

Speeding Up

The truckers, most of whom were between the ages of 18 and 24, felt constrained by the speed limit. They soon learned to remove the “governors” on the trucks that kept down their speed down. Without the governor they could travel up to 60 miles per hour. (If they sensed they were entering an area where the trucks might be inspected, they also learned how to re-install the governors.)

There were traffic control points for refueling and for minor repairs. The men could grab sandwiches and get hot coffee, but it took time for these way stations to be established at the most helpful places.

Hazards of the Red Ball Express

As with anything during wartime, there were many hazards facing the Red Ball Express. Bad roads, tired men, and snipers were at the top of the list.  

The bombed-out roads made it hard to keep the trucks in acceptable repair. Because truck maintenance units were few and far between, drivers needed to know the basics of how the truck operated and how to do minor repairs. If a Jimmy stalled on the road, the first hope was the driving team could fix it. It took time for maintenance crews to locate the stalled rigs.

If a truck needed to be towed that presented a whole new problem. There weren’t many tow trucks, and it was hard to get one to the right place at the right time.  According to military reports, on a random check on Sept 10, 1944, 81 loaded but broken-down trucks sat on road outside Versailles.

More Hazards

In addition, soldier fatigue was a serious issue. Drivers traveled in teams, trading off on the driving. But there were also a few rest stops where they could take a break and get something to eat.

Particularly if part of a convoy, the truckers disliked stopping as it slowed the whole line. In Road to Victory, David Colley writes: “Drivers perfected the art of switching seats while their trucks were in motion on the road…The assistant driver slid across the seat and under the driver as the two exchanged positions and continued driving. If the exchange was carried out with precision, a foot was always on the gas pedal.”

German snipers and enemy airplanes strafing at the traveling convoys added to the very real danger of war. As enemy aircraft became familiar with the routes taken by the Red Ball Express, it was not unusual to have German planes fly low and take aim at the truckers.

Trucking During War: Not a “Rear Action Job”

Sometimes making a successful delivery meant that the Jimmies needed to drive directly to the front. Because of the speed of the advance, not many supply depots were established (and those that existed weren’t always easy to find). The Red Ball Express drove wherever the trucks were needed.

Sherman tanks were powerful weapons, but they guzzled gasoline. In combat, one tank could go through a gallon of gas every 1-2 miles. It was easy for them to hit “empty.” If a Jimmy arrived with gasoline, they simply drove toward the frontline so someone could hop out and deliver the jerricans to the combat team in the tanks. (A jerrican held 5 gallons of gas.)

Kept Supply Lines Rolling

A stalled truck was a temptation for an errant soldier (or even an officer) to lighten his load by selling some of the items he carried on the black market. While these incidents did occur, for the most part, the men remained committed to the mission.

At any given time, an average of 900 vehicles were on the road.  They delivered an estimated 12,000 tons of supplies per day for 82 days.

When the Allies were able to get the railroads back online, the generals felt that there was less need for the Red Ball and phased it out in late November (after starting on August 25, 1944). 

The Red Ball Express far exceeded expectations. When the express service was discontinued after 82 days, its drivers had transported more than 412,000 tons of fuel, ammunition and equipment to 28 different divisions.

The military newspaper, the Stars and Stripes wrote: “Our Negro outfits delivered gas under constant fire. Damned if I’d want their job. They have what it takes.”  (Aug 31 1944).

Created System for Other Trucking Companies

Many more truck convoy systems followed, as there were more times where trucks were the only way to bring in supplies. Most of them borrowed lessons learned through the Red Ball Express, one of the first units to keep the supplies rolling as the Allies began to shift the tide of the war.  

“The spectacular nature of the advance through France] was due in great measure to the men who drove the Red Ball trucks as to those who drove the tanks,” wrote Colonel John S.D. Eisenhower, son of supreme Allied commander.

In 1952, a movie was made about the Red Ball Express, starring Jeff Chandler and Sidney Poitier.

For other important stories about Blacks in World War II, see Charles David, Selfless Coast Guard Hero World War II or Dorie Miller, Hero of World War II.